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EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
PETER W. HAWKES
CEMES-CNRS
Toulouse, France
 Advances in
IMAGING AND
ELECTRON PHYSICS
VOLUME 171

Edited by

PETER W. HAWKES
CEMES-CNRS, Toulouse, France

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Cover photo credit:
M. Jourlin, M. Carré, J. Breugnot, and M. Bouabdellah
Logarithmic Image Processing: Additive Contrast,
Multiplicative Contrast, and Associated Metrics
Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics (2012) 171, pp. 357–406.
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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should be made.

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ISBN: 978-0-12-394297-5
ISSN: 1076-5670

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12 13 14 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Preface

The seven chapters in this latest volume cover theory and practice in
several branches of imaging.
First, we have a surprise: despite all the work on geometrical
optics in past centuries, not everything is known. G. Esser, W. Becken,
W. Müller, P. Baumbach, J. Arasa and D. Uttenweiler show that higher
order aberrations, which are especially important in optometry, can be
characterized by analytic formulae. The examples demonstrate the power
of their method.
This is followed by an account of thermal imaging by L.I. Izhar and
M. Petrou, a regular contributor to this series. The authors study both the
physics underlying the thermal images of various medical conditions and
the related physiological effects. The maladies range over breast cancer,
Raynaud’s phenomenon, pain, anxiety and stress. This is a chapter of wide
interest but with detailed information for the specialist.
The third chapter, by J.-M. Tualle, describes derivations of the radia-
tive transfer equation in media in which the refractive index is a function
of position. This is of importance in several areas, notably in biomedical
optics.
Chapter 4 is also concerned with the life sciences. K. Shrivas and
M. Setou have written a full account of imaging mass spectrometry,
including specimen preparation, instrumentation and applications,
notably in lipidomics, proteomics, pharmacokinetic studies and meta-
bolomics. The section on instrumentation describes numerous types of
mass analyser.
The next chapter – long enough to form a monograph on the subject –
deals with a very new field of optics. R.T. Thompson and S.A. Cummer
survey transformation optics, the branch of optics that has appeared with
the arrival of cloaking devices and super-resolution lenses. The authors,
pioneers in cloaking devices, first present the basic geometry and the
connection with classical electrodynamics. They then study the trans-
formation optics of linear dielectrics, the conformal and quasiconformal
methods and extensions to other wave systems, such as acoustics. A last
section describes the realization of metamaterials.
Scanning electron microscopes are traditionally operated in reflec-
tion, the scanning probe generating signals from a thick specimen that

ix
x Preface

are detected upstream from the target. However, recent developments

have shown that the transmission mode is also of interest, in particu-
lar for nanotechnological applications where the high resolution of the
scanning transmission electron microscope is not required (and the price
prohibitive). T. Klein, E. Buhr and C.G. Frase describe the physics of image
formation in the transmission scanning electron microcope and examine
a range of types of specimen. A concluding section discusses TSEM and
liquids, EELS, tomography and the visualization of electric fields.
Finally, we have a new and fascinating contribution on logarithmic
image processing (LIP) by M. Jourlin, M. Carré, J. Breugnot and
M. Bouabdellah. Here, the authors explore in detail two kinds of contrast:
logarithmic additive contrast and logarithmic multiplicative contrast. The
associated matrices are described and the advantages of LIP are presented.
As always, I thank the authors for taking trouble to make their material
accessible to readers from other domains.

Peter W. Hawkes
 Contributors

Gregor Esser, Wolfgang Becken, Werner Müller, Peter Baumbach, Josep Arasa,
and Dietmar Uttenweiler 1
Research and Development Ophthalmic Lenses, Rodenstock GmbH,
Isartalstr. 43, 80469 München, Germany; Aalen University, Beethovenstr.
1, 73430 Aalen, Germany; Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Rambla
Sant Nebridi 10, Terrassa 08222, Spain
Lila Iznita Izhar and Maria Petrou 41
Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department, Imperial College,
London, UK; Informatics and Telematics Institute, Centre for Research
and Technology–Hellas, Thessaloniki, Greece
Jean-Michel Tualle 115
Laboratoire de Physique des Lasers, CNRS, Université Paris 13, Villeta-
neuse, France
Kamlesh Shrivas and Mitsutoshi Setou 145
Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Hamamatsu University
School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-Ku, Hamamatsu,
Shizuoka 431-3192, Japan; Department of Chemistry, Guru Ghasidas
University, Bilaspur-495009, CG, India
Robert T. Thompson and Steven A. Cummer 195
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Otago, P.O.
Box 56, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand; Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering and Center for Metamaterials and Integrated
Plasmonics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
Tobias Klein, Egbert Buhr, and Carl Georg Frase 297
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Bundesallee 100, 38116 Braun-
schweig, Germany
Michel Jourlin, Maxime Carré, Josselin Breugnot, and Mohamed Bouabdellah 357
University of Saint-Etienne, Lab. H. Curien UMR CNRS 5516, Saint-
Etienne, France; NT2I,BHT, 20 Rue B. Lauras, 42000 Saint-Etienne,
France; Silab, Z.I. de la Nau, 19240 Saint-Viance, France

xi
 Future Contributions

S. Ando
Gradient operators and edge and corner detection
D. Batchelor
Soft x-ray microscopy
E. Bayro Corrochano
Quaternion wavelet transforms
C. Beeli
Structure and microscopy of quasicrystals
C. Bobisch and R. Möller
Ballistic electron microscopy
F. Bociort
Saddle-point methods in lens design
A. Cornejo Rodriguez and F. Granados Agustin
Ronchigram quantification
T. Cremer (vols 172 and 173)
Neutron microscopy
C. Dwyer
Atomic-scale chemical mapping in the scanning transmission electron
microscope
M. El-Gomati
Quantitative scanning electron microscopy
M. Ferroni
Transmission microscopy in the scanning electron microscope
R.G. Forbes
Liquid metal ion sources
H. Gelderblom
Helmut Ruska
A. Gölzhäuser
Recent advances in electron holography with point sources
D.E. Greenfield, M.A. Monastyrskiy and M. Ya. Schelev
Photoemission high-speed tubes for the investigation of ultra-short events

xiii
xiv Future Contributions

J. Grotemeyer
Time-of-flight mass spectrometry
M. Haschke
Micro-XRF excitation in the scanning electron microscope
A. Heuer and D. Hovis
Laser scanning confocal microscopy
M.I. Herrera
The development of electron microscopy in Spain
R. Herring
Electron vortex beams
D. Ioanoviciu and K. Tsuno
Wien filters
M.S. Isaacson
Early STEM development
A.A. Ischenko and P.M. Weber
Structure and dynamics of free molecules and condensed matter
K. Ishizuka
Contrast transfer and crystal images
A. Jacobo
Intracavity type II second-harmonic generation for image processing
M. Jourlin
Logarithmic methods for image classification
L. Kipp
Photon sieves
T. Kohashi
Spin-polarized scanning electron microscopy
O.L. Krivanek
Aberration-corrected STEM
B. Lencová
Modern developments in electron optical calculations
H. Lichte
New developments in electron holography
A. Lisowska
Smoothlets and wedgelets
P. Maragos
Representations of morphological image operators and comparisons with linear
operators
S. Marshall and P. Murray
The hit-or-miss transform
M. Matsuya
Calculation of aberration coefficients using Lie algebra
 Future Contributions xv

P.P. Mondal and A. Diaspro

Point-spread function engineering for super-resolution single- and multi-photon
fluorescence microscopy
J.A. Monsoriu
Fractal zone plates
L. Muray
Miniature electron optics and applications
N. Neskovic
Rainbow lenses
M.A. O’Keefe
Electron image simulation
V.P. Oleshko
Electron tweezers and potential applications
D. Paganin, T. Gureyev and K. Pavlov
Intensity-linear methods in inverse imaging
N. Papamarkos and A. Kesidis
The inverse Hough transform
J.L. Prince, Y. Bai and X. Han
Adaptive octree grids
P. Rocca and M. Donelli
Imaging of dielectric objects
J. Rodenburg
Lensless imaging
A.T. Ruiz, A.J. den Dekker and W. van den Broeck
System and control theory in electron microscopy
S. Sangwine
Color image processing
K. Schultheiß and R.R. Schröder
Phase plates for the electron microscope
R. Shimizu, T. Ikuta and Y. Takai
Defocus image modulation processing in real time
T. Soma
Focus-deflection systems and their applications
P. Sussner and M.E. Valle
Fuzzy morphological associative memories
M. Treacy
Speckle and disordered materials
E.M. Yakushev and S. Bimurzaev
Theory and computation of electron mirrors
 Chapter 1
Derivation of the Reflection
Equations for Higher-Order
Aberrations of Local Wave
Fronts by Oblique Incidence
Gregor Esser∗ , Wolfgang Becken∗ , Werner Müller∗ ,
Peter Baumbach† , Josep Arasa‡ , and
Dietmar Uttenweiler∗

Contents 1. Introduction 2
1.1. Rays, Wave Fronts, and Aberrations 2
1.2. Classification of Aberrations 3
1.3. Scope of the Work 4
2. Definitions and Notation 4
2.1. Coordinate Systems 4
2.2. Description of Wave Fronts 6
2.3. Local Properties of Wave Fronts and Surface 8
3. Mathematical Approach in the 2D Case 12
3.1. Coordinates in the 2D Case 12
3.2. Description of Wave Fronts in the 2D Case 12
3.3. Normal Vectors and their Derivatives 13
3.4. Ansatz for Determining the Reflection Equations 14
3.5. Solving Techniques for the Fundamental Equation 18
3.6. Solutions for the General Reflection Equations 20
3.7. Generalization of the Coddington Equation 22
4. Mathematical Approach in the 3D Case 23
4.1. Wave Fronts and Normal Vectors 23
4.2. Ansatz for Determining the Reflection Equations 24

∗ Research and Development Ophthalmic Lenses, Rodenstock GmbH, Isartalstr. 43,

80469 München, Germany
† Aalen University, Beethovenstr. 1, 73430 Aalen, Germany
‡ Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Rambla Sant Nebridi 10, Terrassa 08222, Spain

Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics, Volume 171, ISSN 1076-5670, DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-394297-5.00001-5.
Copyright c 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1
2 Gregor Esser et al.

4.3. Solutions for the General Reflection Equations 26

4.4. Generalization of the Coddington Equation 28
5. Results and Discussion 30
5.1. The 2D Case 30
5.2. The 3D Case 31
6. Examples and Applications 31
6.1. Aspherical Surface Correction Up to Sixth Order 31
6.2. Special Examples 33
6.3. A Numerical Example 36
7. Summary 36
References 38

1. INTRODUCTION
This work deals with aberrations in the framework of geometrical optics
in which the wavelength is neglected (λ → 0) with respect to diffraction
effects (Born and Wolf, 1980, pp. 109–232; Mahajan, 1998, pp. 91–361). The
notions of both rays and wave fronts still exist in this case. A wave front,
generally defined as a surface of constant phase, is then a surface of con-
stant optical path length. The direction of a ray as a virtual infinitesimally
small bundle of light is defined by the normal of the wave front.
The Coddington equation and the vertex correction formula are used
to determine the analytical calculation of local power and astigmatism of a
wave front after reflection, refraction, and propagation. In two recent pub-
lications the authors extended the refraction and propagation equations to
HOA (Esser et al., 2010, 2011).

1.1. Rays, Wave Fronts, and Aberrations

Herein, an imagery is said to be free from aberrations if every point of
an object is imaged perfectly. For a given object point this applies if it
is imaged to its paraxially conjugate image point. In terms of rays, this
image point serves as a reference point that any ray starting from the
object point through the aperture must hit. In terms of waves, the image
point serves as the center of a reference sphere, usually through the center
of the exit pupil. The point is imaged without aberrations if the wave front
originating from the object point coincides with this reference sphere.
Aberrations are deviations from this situation. They can be similarly
described in the ray picture or the wave picture, leading to ray or wave
aberrations, respectively (Shannon, 1997, pp. 25–105). Both pictures—that
is, ray and wave aberrations—are equivalent and can be translated into
each other.
Throughout this paper, we refer to wave aberrations. A wave
front–based description of these aberrations can refer to either (1) the
geometrical shape of the real wave fronts in space (as we do) or (2) the
 Derivation of the Reflection Equations 3

wave aberration function that measures the optical path differences (OPD)
between the real wave fronts and the reference sphere along the real
occurring rays.

1.2. Classification of Aberrations

The aberration function can be written as a power series expansion in
both the image coordinates and the pupil coordinates or some combi-
nations of these. Depending on symmetry and conventions, this series
expansion may have different appearances, but in either case the respec-
tive coefficients are used to classify the aberrations present. For example,
in the case of wave aberrations of rotationally symmetric systems, it is cus-
tomary to consider Seidel (primary) aberrations, Schwarzschild (secondary)
aberrations, and so on; these are sometimes also called fourth-order and
sixth-order aberrations, and so on. In terms of ray aberrations, different
expressions for the same aberrations would occur, which in that situation
are called third-order and fifth-order aberrations, and so on. Therefore,
the order of an aberration is meaningful only in connection with the
underlying aberration scheme.
While the treatment of rotationally symmetric systems is well esta-
blished in the literature (Mahajan, 1998; Shannon, 1997), only a few
publications address nonsymmetric systems. Thompson (2009) estab-
lished a real-ray–based method for calculating third-order and fifth-order
aberrations (in the picture of rays) of misaligned or generally nonsym-
metric optical systems made of otherwise rotationally symmetric optical
surfaces.
A very interesting subtopic considers the aberration function for a sin-
gle surface for a fixed image point and consequently as a function of the
pupil coordinates only (Mahajan, 1998), but with no restrictions to the
symmetries of surfaces or wave fronts. In this case, which is the focus of
the present work, the aberration function is often called a wave front aberra-
tion. This aberration is often referred to a plane orthogonal to the chief ray
instead of the reference sphere, which is usual, for example, in aberrome-
try (Krueger et al., 2004). We also do so herein. The above-mentioned series
expansion then reduces to an expansion in terms of the pupil coordinates x
and y only. The terms in this series give rise to define the order of an aber-
ration as the highest number of added powers of x and y (Krueger et al.,
2004; Porter et al., 2006), as detailed Section 2. It is well accepted that no
one-to-one correspondence exists between the order we use and the more
general one described above (Mahajan, 1998) because different orders con-
cerning the image coordinates are summarized within one order of pupil
coordinates. Throughout the paper, we summarize first-order aberrations
(tilt) and second-order aberrations (consisting of defocus and astigma-
tism) as lower-order aberrations (LOA), and all aberrations of third order
(coma, trefoil), fourth order (e.g., spherical aberration), and higher are
4 Gregor Esser et al.

summarized as HOA, following the work by Krueger et al. (2004) and

Porter et al. (2001).

1.3. Scope of the Work

Awareness of the role of HOA has increased in optometry and ophthal-
mology (Applegate, 2004; Krueger et al., 2004; Porter et al., 2001, 2006).
HOA are important for large pupil sizes only and are therefore associated
with a wave front description over the entire pupil. This work attempts
to establish a description of HOA based on local derivatives that is suit-
able for describing all effects of a large pupil. In Section 2, we show
that this description is indeed fully equivalent to the usual approaches
tailored to describing the entire pupil (e.g., by means of Zernike polyno-
mials). Our local description allows the derivation of analytical formulas
for computing HOA, which represents significant progress in the general
understanding of HOA and a reduced numerical effort.
In previous methods to determine HOA the reflected wave front was
calculated by ray tracing (Thompson, 2009), a precise method in which a
large number of rays are used, but it is a time-consuming iterative numer-
ical method. In the field of spectacle optics, the use of local wave fronts
to calculate power and astigmatism is well established (Shannon, 1997;
Landgrave and Moya-Cessa, 1996; Burkhard and Shealy, 1981; Stavroudis,
1972, pp. 136–160; Becken et al., 2007). Wave front tracing is a very fast
semi-analytical method. Local features of a wave front are very impor-
tant, especially in spectacle lens optics, because the aperture stop is not
stationary as in technical optics. Magnification and anamorphotic distor-
tion previously have also been calculated locally (Acosta and Blendowske
2007; Becken et al., 2008a,b).
The literature describes how to calculate power and astigmatism of a
local wave front after the reflection at a given surface. For orthogonal inci-
dence this relation is described by the vergence equation (Born and Wolf,
1980; Mahajan, 1998) and for oblique incidence by the Coddington equa-
tion (Born and Wolf, 1980; Burkhard and Shealy, 1981; Campbell, 2006;
Landgrave and Moya-Cessa, 1996; Shealy, 1976).
The goal of our study is to extend these reflecting equations (Becken
et al., 2007; Burkhard and Shealy, 1981; Campbell, 2006; Golub, 2009; Land-
grave and Moya-Cessa, 1996; Shannon, 1997; Shealy, 1976; Stavroudis,
1972) to the case of HOA (e.g., coma and spherical aberration) to decrease
the computational effort with intrinsic accuracy of an analytical method.

2. DEFINITIONS AND NOTATION

2.1. Coordinate Systems

As in previous work (Esser et al., 2010) to describe the incoming wave
front, the reflective surface, and the reflected wave front, three different
 Derivation of the Reflection Equations 5

y′
y ′Out
τ ′/n′
y
n ′Out
d ′ ys
ns
{w Out
′ } y z′ τ /n
nIn −ε
ε z
z
yIn
d
{wIn}
{ws}
(a)

y y′
y ′Out τ ′/n n′Out
y
ys
−τ
n ys
n In ws = R(ε)ws w ′Out
y
z′
wIn d′ ws = R(−ε)ws
ε z −ε
z z
yIn
d

(b) (c)

FIGURE 1 Local coordinates systems of the reflecting surface, of the incoming wave
front, and of the reflected wave front (a) Fictitious situation of separated origins for a
better understanding of nomenclature. The surface normal vectors along the
neighboring ray drawn, referred to as n̄In , n̄S , and n̄Out in the common global system
(x̄, ȳ, z̄), coincide. (b,c) The meaning of the vector sum in Eq. (25).

local Cartesian coordinate systems (x, y, z), (x̄, ȳ, z̄), and (x0 , y0 , z0 ) are used,
respectively (Figure 1). The systems are determined by the chief ray corre-
sponding to the fixed image point. The origins of these coordinate systems
coincide in the chief ray’s intersection point with the reflective surface.
The systems have a common axis x = x0 = x̄, the normal of the reflecting
plane, which is the plane containing the normals of the incoming wave
front, the reflective surface, and the reflected wave front. Consequently,
the y − z plane, the y0 − z0 plane, and the ȳ − z̄ plane coincide with each
other and with the refracting plane. The z-axis points along the incom-
ing chief ray, the z0 -axis points along the reflected chief ray, and the z̄-axis
points along the normal of the reflective surface. The orientations of the
y-axis, the y0 -axis, and the ȳ-axis are such that each system is right-handed.
6 Gregor Esser et al.

In this work the wave front description, the relation between the coef-
ficients and the derivatives, and the connection between coefficients and
local aberrations are defined in the same manner as in Esser et al. (2010).
The above definitions imply that the representations of any vector-like
quantity v are connected to each other by the relations

v = R(ε)v̄, v0 = R(−ε)v̄, (1)

where R denotes spatial rotations about the common x-axis, defined by

the three-dimensional (3D) rotation matrix
 
1 0 0
R(ε) = 0 cos ε − sin ε  . (2)
0 sin ε cos ε

To avoid confusion between primes for coordinate systems and deriva-

tives, we denote the derivatives of a function f (x) as f (1) (x), f (2) (x),
f (3) (x), . . . instead of f 0 (x), f 00 (x), f (3) (x), . . . , respectively. Similarly, we
denote the derivatives of a function f (x, y) as f (1,0) (x, y), f (0,1) (x, y),
f (2,0) (x, y), . . . instead of ∂/∂x f (x, y), ∂/∂y f (x, y), ∂ 2 /∂x2 f (x, y), . . . , respec-
tively. Consequently, for functions f 0 (x0 ) or f̄ (x̄), the symbolism f 0(1) (x0 ) or
f̄ (1) (x̄) refers to ∂/∂x0 f 0 (x0 ) and ∂/∂ x̄ f̄ (x̄), respectively.
In addition to the coordinate notation, we introduce a lower index
notation to denote whether a quantity belongs to the incoming wave front,
the reflective surface, or the reflected wave front. Regardless of which
frame is used for mathematical description, the index “In” belongs to the
incoming wave front (e.g., the normal vector is represented as nIn , n0In , n̄In
in the three frames, respectively); the index “Out” indicates the reflected
wave front (nOut , n0Out , n̄Out , respectively); and the index “S” denotes the
reflective surface (nS , n0S , n̄S , respectively). Although all representations
are used, the preferred frame of each quantity is the one in which the cor-
responding normal vector has the components (0, 0, 1)T , where the index
T indicates the transpose. Therefore, the preferred frame is the unprimed
one for “In” quantities, the primed one for “Out” quantities, and the frame
(x̄, ȳ, z̄) for “S” quantities (i.e., the preferred representations for the normal
vectors are nIn , n0Out , and n̄S and similarly for all other kinds of vectors).

2.2. Description of Wave Fronts

Since the wave fronts and reflective surface are similarly described by
their sagittas, here and in the following the notion surface refers to any
of the reflective surfaces, the incoming or the reflected wave front, unless
those are distinguished explicitly.
 Derivation of the Reflection Equations 7

Any surface sagitta, provided it is continuous and infinitely often dif-

ferentiable within the pupil, can be expanded with respect to any complete
system of functions spanning the vector space of such functions, which
is mathematically denoted by C∞ (P), where P ⊂ IR2 is the subset of the
pupil plane inside the pupil.
For circular pupils it is common to use the orthogonal complete system
of Zernike circle polynomials (Dorsch et al., 1998; Mahajan, 1998). Even for
these polynomials different conventions, indexing schemes, and normal-
izations exist (Born and Wolf, 1980; Porter et al., 2006). We use the Optical
Society of America (OSA) standard of Zernike polynomials Zm k (ρ, ϑ) in
Porter et al. (2006), which describes a surface w(x, y) within a pupil with
radius r0 as the expansion

k
∞ X
X
w(x, y) = cm m
k Zk (ρ, ϑ), (m − k) even, (3)
k=0 m=−k

where ρ = r/r0 , x = r sin ϑ, y = r cos ϑ, and the cmk are the Zernike
coefficients. Alternatively, any other complete system can be used for
expansion—for example, the infinite set of monomials of the variables—
that is, 1, x, y, x2 , xy, y2 , etc., yielding

k
∞ X
X am,k−m
w(x, y) = xm yk−m , (4)
m! (k − m)!
k=0 m=0

which represents the power expansion in a Taylor series (Born and Wolf,
1980; Mahajan, 1998), and the coefficients are simply given by derivatives
of the surface:

∂k
am,k−m = w(x, y) = w(m,k−m) (0, 0). (5)
∂xm ∂yk−m
x=0,y=0

As long as the series expansion is infinite, a transformation between

any of the representations in Eqs. (3) and (4) is legitimate, well defined,
and unique.
In practice, however, an expansion is always truncated at some finite
order, justified by the observation that the major part of light informa-
tion content is already sufficiently accurately described by the truncated
series. Instead of a series we then deal simply with a polynomial. This
polynomial can then be considered as a projection of the aberration func-
tion onto the vector subspace which is spanned by the finite (incomplete)
basis system of functions underlying the truncated series.
8 Gregor Esser et al.

By the order of an aberration term we mean the number k in either Eq. (3)
or Eq. (4). But here we draw attention to the fact that an aberration of
certain order is unique only in connection with a specified basis √ set. For
0
example, in Eq. (3) the Zernike aberration in the term Z4 = 5(6ρ 4 −
√
6ρ 2 + 1) = 5(6(x2 + y2 )2 /r40 − 6(x2 + y2 )/r20 + 1) due to ρ = r/r0 with
order k = 4, usually called spherical aberration, also contains quadratic and
constant terms, whereas any k = 4 term in Eq. (4) is a monomial with pure
value k = 4 for added x and y powers. An explicit transformation between
the Zernike basis and the monomial basis is provided in Esser et al. (2010).
In contrast to the Zernike polynomials, which are tailored for a surface
description over a finite pupil size, at first glance it seems that a descrip-
tion of local derivatives at the pupil might be valid only in an infinitesimal
neighborhood of the pupil center. However, regarding the above vector
space arguments, a basis of local derivatives does not suffer any loss of
information over the entire pupil size either, provided that the order of
derivatives chosen is sufficiently high.
For later application, we introduce

k
∞ X
X aIn,m,k−m m k−m
wIn (x, y) = x y
m! (k − m)!
k=0 m=0
(6)
k a0
∞ X
Out,m,k−m
X
w0Out (x0 , y0 ) = x0m y0k−m
m! (k − m)!
k=0 m=0

and

k
∞ X
X ām,k−m
w̄S (x̄, ȳ) = x̄m ȳk−m (7)
m! (k − m)!
k=0 m=0

to describe the incoming wave front, the reflected wave front, and the
reflective surface, respectively.
The central mathematical idea for the method in this work is that the
coefficients of the unknown surface—having been assumed to be describ-
able by a finite polynomial function so that once the coefficients are known
the surface is known—may be found by taking derivatives and evaluating
them at (x, y) = (0, 0), where it is known that the value of a derivative of
order k equals the value of coefficient k.

2.3. Local Properties of Wave Fronts and Surface

Considering the infinitesimal area around the optical axis—or rather,
around the chief ray—leads to Gaussian optics (or paraxial optics). For the
 Derivation of the Reflection Equations 9

Direction of light
S

Object- Image-
point point

S S′

FIGURE 2 Orthogonal incidence of a spherical wave front with vergence S = n/s onto
a spherical mirror with surface power S̄/.

aberrations of second order the reflection of a spherical wave front with

orthogonal incidence onto a spherical surface with the surface power S̄
(Figure 2) is described by the vergence equation:

S0 = S + S̄, (8)

which is equivalent to

1 1 2
+ 0 = , (9)
s s r

where
S = n/s is the vergence of the incoming wave front
S0 = −n/s0 is the vergence of the reflected wave front
S̄ = −2 n/r is the surface power
s is the vertex distance at the object side (the axial distance from the
reflective surface to the object point), which is equivalent to the radius
of curvature of the incoming wave front
s0 is the vertex distance at the image side (the axial distance from the
reflective surface to the image point), which is equivalent to the radius
of curvature of the reflected wave front
r is the radius of curvature of the reflective surface (the distance from
the reflective surface to the center point of the reflective surface)
n is the refractive index
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