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AU1913title 8/22/05 4:58 PM Page 1

Fundamentals of

DSL Technology

Edited by
Philip Golden
Hervé Dedieu
Krista Jacobsen

Boca Raton New York

AU1913_Discl.fm Page 1 Tuesday, August 23, 2005 1:25 PM

Cover designer: Chris Massey

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Fundamentals of DSL technology / editors, Philip Golden, Herve Dedieu, Krista Jacobsen.
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Dedications

Phil Golden dedicates this book to his Mum, Caroline, and Hannah, the three most important

women in his life.

Hervé Dedieu dedicates this book to Claire.

Krista S. Jacobsen dedicates this book to John Cioffi, who arguably started it all.
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Acknowledgments

The editorial team is grateful for the participation of so many skilled engineers in the
creation of the Fundamentals of DSL Technology. The quality of this volume is testimonial to
the talent and dedication of its chapter authors, and the editors would like to thank the
authors for their outstanding contributions. The high quality of this volume is also due in
part to the efforts of the excellent team of reviewers. The editors were fortunate to gather
a team of DSL experts whose careful reviews of the material helped to ensure technical
accuracy and clarity. The editors would like to thank the reviewers for their role in crafting
this volume: Abdelaziz Amraoui, Rodolfo Ceruti, Jim Eyres, Orla Feely, Olivier Grenie,
Conor Heneghan, Fred Howett, Ragnar Jonsson, Rob Kirkby, Jae-Chon Lee, Geert Leus,
Simon Litsyn, Hannah Massey, Cory Modlin, Tomas Nordström, Vladimir Oksman, Sigurd
Schelstraete, Gary Tennyson, Michail Tsatsanis, Jaap van der Beek, Rob van den Brink, and
Katie Wilson.
Phil Golden would like to thank both Krista and Hervé for their excellent work. In
addition he would like to formally recognize the role that Hervé Dedieu has played as his
mentor during his time at LEA. Outside of LEA, both John Cook of BT and Peter Reusens,
formerly of Alcatel, have been exceptionally instructive in helping Phil to understand the
mysteries of splitters.
Hervé Dedieu would like to thank the talented engineers of LEA with whom he had
the privilege to work. He expresses his gratitude to Phil Golden and Guy Nallatamby for
their constant support and team spirit. In the success of LEA as a start-up company, the
involvement of Phil as the “senior circuit-designer” who represented LEA in various ETSI
and ANSI groups was a key point. This book would not have been possible without his
work within the different DSL standardization committees and without his talent to gather
a team of people who made this book happen.
Krista S. Jacobsen would like to thank Phil and Hervé for inviting her to help create what
she believes is the ultimate industry reference on DSL. She would also like to thank her
colleagues from Amati and Texas Instruments and the ITU, ETSI, and T1E1.4 DSL stan-
dards crowds for creating stimulating (and sometimes frustrating) environments in which
to learn about DSL. Finally, she would like to thank Professor John M. Cioffi, who believed
in Krista when she didn’t believe in herself, and whose teachings and support have opened
many doors.
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Foreword

DSL’s worldwide coronation of broadband Internet service motivates this comprehensive

and timely encyclopedia of DSL transmission fundamentals. Rising star, author, and editor
Philip Golden joins industry veterans Hervé Dedieu and Krista S. Jacobsen to collect an
outstanding set of expert contributors who press the advances of DSL in two volumes —
this one and the upcoming Implementation and Applications of xDSL Technology — detailing
all aspects of DSL modem design. Readers and students of these volumes indeed hold the
keys to all aspects of DSL design in their library. One envisions designers and students
around the world depending on the enormous information within. This first volume lays
a foundation, addressing the basics of DSL.
There have been many texts on DSL in the past few years, including the heavily referenced
two-book set by Starr, Sorbara, Cioffi, and Silverman [4] [5], Walter Chen’s earliest text [2],
John Bingham’s final classic [1] before retiring, and Dennis Rauschmayer’s pragmatic view
[3]. However, none has been as comprehensive as this ambitious collection’s realization.
The DSL area has been expanding rapidly, making an address by a single author or small
group of authors difficult. This text addresses the overall need by combining the strengths
of the world’s most renowned DSL experts.
A good transmission engineer’s first rule is “know your channel,” and this text reinforces
that notion: a caboodle of Europe’s finest DSL engineers adorns an introductory three-
chapter examination of DSL copper transmission channels in this first volume. Golden,
an internationally acknowledged expert on splitter circuits, joins DSL’s premier analog
expert, BT engineer John Cook, to overview the basic telephone environment in the first
chapter. Fundamentally, strong transmission in DSL depends on a good understanding of
the physical-layer twisted pair, provided in Chapter 2 by renowned analog expert Hervé
Dedieu. Such good transmission depends also on good noise models, which are provided
in the third chapter by another BT expert, Rob Kirkby.
Modulation and equalization expert Ragnar Jonsson of Conexant introduces all line codes
in Chapter 4, to set up later chapters that provide greater depth in and understanding of
the various transmission methods. Professor Edward Jones of University College Galway,
Ireland, relates in Chapter 5 the materialization of the basic objectives in DSL service and
compares DSL to other methods of broadband delivery.
Seven succeeding chapters describe the basics of DSL transmission to complete this first
volume. The “transmission fest” begins in Chapter 6, which provides an excellent review
of single-carrier modulation by highly mobile author Vladimir Oksman of Tadiran, Lucent,
Broadcom, and currently Infineon. A professor could not be more proud than to see the
fine work in this volume by two former outstanding students, the first of whom is Krista
S. Jacobsen, formerly of Texas Instruments, internationally recognized for her exceptional
understanding of the discrete multi-tone (DMT) technology. Her Chapter 7 provides a com-
prehensive treatment of DMT transmission methods that should allow many to understand
this simple but high-performing ubiquitous DSL technique, which, following its selection
for both ADSL and VDSL, has clearly become the industry favorite. Krista is followed by
Broadcom’s coding-world superstar Gottfried Ungerboeck, who details his internation-
ally acclaimed trellis codes for DSL in Chapter 8. A second former student, Texas Instru-
ments’ frame-format and coding pioneer Cory Modlin, then follows in Chapter 9 with a
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detailed investigation of the Reed–Solomon codes and interleaving used in almost all DSL
systems. Turbo and LDPC codes may find their way into use in DSL’s future, and IBM
Zurich Research Lab’s Evangelos Eleftheriou and Sedat Ölçer are the premier experts on
the possibilities, which appear in Chapter 10. Iceland’s Ragnar Jonsson returns in Chapter
11 to review basic equalization theory for use in DSL.
Initially noted but under-appreciated, radio-frequency (RF) interference is a major
source of performance loss at high speeds in some DSLs. A quartet of Swedish–Bavarian
authors — Rickard Nilsson, Thomas Magesacher, Steffen Trautmann, and Tomas
Nordström — provide a valuable investigation of RF issues and means for reducing or
suppressing RF interference in DSL.
Having completed this first basic volume, excitement builds in anticipation of the ensu-
ing volume that addresses the methods for expansion and growth of DSL’s success.

John Cioffi
Stanford, California

References
1. J.A.C. Bingham. ADSL, VDSL and Multi-Carrier Modulation. Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY,
2000.
2. W.Y. Chen. DSL: Simulation Techniques and Standards Development for Digital Subscriber Lines.
Macmillan, New York, 1998.
3. D. Rauschmayer. ADSL/VDSL Principles: A Practical and Precise Study of Asymmetric Digital Sub-
scriber Lines and Very High Speed Digital Subscriber Lines. Macmillan Technical Publishing, 1998.
4. T. Starr, J.M. Cioffi, and P.J. Silverman. Understanding Digital Subscriber Line Technology. Prentice-
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1999.
5. T. Starr, M. Sorbara, J.M. Cioffi, and P.J. Silverman. DSL Advances. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 2002.
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Contents

1 Overview of the POTS Environment — Signals and Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Philip Golden and John Cook

2 The Copper Channel — Loop Characteristics and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Hervé Dedieu

3 Noise and Noise Modelling on the Twisted Pair Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Rob H. Kirkby

4 The Twisted Pair Channel — Models and Channel Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Ragnar Hlynur Jonsson

5 Introduction to DSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Edward Jones

6 Fundamentals of Single-Carrier Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Vladimir Oksman

7 Fundamentals of Multi-Carrier Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Krista S. Jacobsen

8 Trellis-Coded Modulation in DSL Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Gottfried Ungerboeck

9 Error Control Coding in DSL Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Cory S. Modlin

10 Advanced Coding Techniques for Digital Subscriber Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Evangelos Eleftheriou and Sedat Ölçer

11 DSL Channel Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Ragnar Hlynur Jonsson

12 Synchronization of DSL Modems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Sverrir Olafsson

13 Radio-Frequency Interference Suppression in DSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

Rickard Nilsson, Thomas Magesacher, Steffen Trautmann,
and Tomas Nordström

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
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1
Overview of the POTS Environment—Signals
and Circuits

Philip Golden and John Cook

CONTENTS
1.1 How the Telephony System Is Typically Constructed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
1.1.1 Network Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.1.2 Local Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.1.2.1 Line Interface Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.1.2.2 Main Distribution Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.1.3 Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.1.3.1 Dropwires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
1.1.4 Network Demarcation Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
1.1.5 Customer Premises Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.1.5.1 Bus Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.1.5.2 Tree-and-Branch Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.5.3 Impedance Presented by Customer Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.5.4 Terminal Equipment Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.5.5 Terminal Equipment State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.5.6 “On-Hook” State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.5.7 “Off-Hook” State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Speech Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Hybrid Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 Two-Wire Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 Two-Wire to Four-Wire Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.3 Conceptual Hybrid Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.4 Choice of Terminating Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.5 Choice of Balance Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.6 Audible Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.7 Gains in the Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 DC Signalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.1 The Local Exchange Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.2 Resistive Feeding from the Local Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.3 Programmable DC Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.4 Resistance of the Local Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.5 Resistance of the Terminal Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.6 Additional Uses of DC Signalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1
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2 Fundamentals of DSL Technology

1.5 Wetting Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.5.1 Corrosion of Cable Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.2 Use of Wetting Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.3 Potential Effect of Wetting Current on DSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Ringing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7 Ring Trip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8 On- or Off-Hook Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.9 Dialing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.9.1 Pulse (Loop Disconnect) Dialing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.9.1.1 High Voltage Transients Due to Pulse Dialing . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.9.2 Tone Dialing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.10 Subscriber Private Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.11 Telephony Speech Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.12 Balance about Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.13 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.14 Overload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.15 High-Speed Voiceband Modems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.16 CLASS Signalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

ABSTRACT One of the principal advantages of DSL technology is the use of an existing
physical communications infrastructure, namely, the telephone network. This feature, cou-
pled with the fact that the majority of DSL deployments to date co-exist with telephony
services on the same line, means that an understanding of the telephony environment is of
key importance for the successful design and deployment of DSL technology. This chapter
describes the telephony environment, focussing on aspects that have particular relevance
to DSL performance.

1.1 How the Telephony System Is Typically Constructed

Although the origin of telephony lies in the year 1876 with Alexander Graham Bell’s inven-
tion of the telephone, it was in the succeeding few years that the telephony network began
to take shape. Telephony was transformed from being a short distance point-to-point ser-
vice to today’s ubiquitous network that enables almost instant communication over large
distances. The beginning of this transformation was the development of local exchanges,
physical “hubs” that terminate multiple subscriber lines. These are “nodes” of the public
switched telephone network (PSTN). In recent years the PSTN has become known as the
plain old telephone service (POTS) network. Despite being rather crude, this acronym is
now prevalent in technical literature. As well as enabling interconnection between all users
of a particular exchange, the development of backbone trunk systems that linked various
exchanges enabled first inter-urban, then international, connection.
The original backbone trunks were made up of traditional telephony cables, but nowa-
days this portion of the telephony network can be made of optical fiber or even satellite
links. The part of the network on the other side of the exchange, however, i.e., the sub-
scriber lines leading to each end customer, are to this day for the most part still made up
of traditional copper (or aluminium) cables. It is this section of the telephony network,
often referred to as the “local loop” or the “last mile,” that is of primary interest for DSL
technology. A representation of the local loop is given in Figure 1.1.
P1: shibu/Vijay
July 22, 2005 10:44 CRC-AU1913 AU1913˙Book

Overview of the POTS Environment —Signals and Circuits 3

Customer
Local exchange
(business or
home users)

From Street
core cabinet
network

Existing
copper
cables

FIGURE 1.1
The local loop.

It should be noted that it is often of interest to minimize the length of the local loop, i.e.,
effectively decrease the distance between the subscribers and the local exchange. For this
reason “remote exchanges” are sometimes used, where the traditional central exchange is
connected to a smaller exchange via a high-speed link (which can be either telephony cable
or optical fiber). This is generally present in areas where there is significant demographic
dispersion in order to minimize the distances between the subscriber and the exchange.
In the United States, around 15 percent of telephony subscribers are served via remote
multiplexers known as digital loop carriers (DLC). As a general trend, optical fiber is pene-
trating farther and farther into traditional telephony networks, thus shortening the length
of the local loop. Nevertheless, primarily for economic reasons, it is certain that a signif-
icant percentage of the telephony network in most countries will remain (at least in the
short-to-medium term) as twisted pair cable between the subscriber and the exchange. In
particular from the perspective of DSL, one can typically consider the transmission path
of most interest as being from the exchange to the subscriber along the local loop and vice
versa. Some discussion on the structure of the network shall be given in the text that follows,
as well as consideration of each element in the DSL transmission path.

1.1.1 Network Structure

Local exchanges are normally sited according to a transmission standard, typically a
national standard that is used to ensure the efficiency of a defined class of telephony con-
nections. Various factors come into play in the formulation of these standards, and for the
purposes of this text it is assumed that exchange locations are chosen in order to minimize
the length of the local loops. The interested reader is referred to Chapter 7 of [Richards 1973],
where a comprehensive discussion of the development of a telephony transmission stan-
dard for the United Kingdom is given.
The largest local telephony exchanges are typically found in urban areas, where a sig-
nificant number of subscribers are located within a relatively small geographical area. It is
common for large suburban districts also to have dedicated exchanges; typically these will
be of smaller size than those situated in urban areas. In pursuit of ubiquity for the PSTN,
hampered by the maximum length of the local loop generally set by signal attenuation, rural
customers are typically serviced by even smaller exchanges. The concept of exchange size
here is taken to be directly related to the number of subscribers serviced by the exchange.
The original transmission standards were focused on providing adequate telephony
service to an existing customer base. More recent network planning must also take into
P1: shibu/Vijay
July 22, 2005 10:44 CRC-AU1913 AU1913˙Book

4 Fundamentals of DSL Technology

account the fact that the subscriber network will change in form over time; one obvious
example of this is the development of large housing estates in previously nonresidential
areas. For practical reasons, it is clearly preferable for a residence to be served with a tele-
phone line as soon as it is ready for habitation. This in turn means that network planners
have to make some estimations on future developments of the subscriber network, based
on a number of different factors. Due to the fact that these estimations are rarely 100 per-
cent accurate, the routing of the deployed telephony cables does not necessarily closely
correspond to the optimal network.

1.1.2 Local Exchanges

Local exchanges have gone through repeated technological revolutions since the inception
of telephony. In the early years, exchanges relied entirely on manual operators who con-
nected themselves to customers calling attention, asked who they wanted to be connected
to, and then provided the appropriate patch cord to make the connection. It was quickly
realized that the growth in telecommunications could not sustain this process, and some
means of automation would need to be found. The Strowger (q.v.) system was the first of
these; it relied on sophisticated electromechanical devices known as selectors for its oper-
ation. These devices were operated by pulses sent from a dial attached to the telephone.
An appropriate outlet of the selector was selected according to the number of pulses from
the dialled digit. Successive ranks of selectors dealt with successive digits of the telephone
number in order to select the called customer. In fact, in the United Kingdom some of this
technology was still in service until only a decade or so ago, and no doubt it still serves in
some places in the world.
Successive generations of electromechanical exchanges tended to reduce the reliance on
mechanical functions and increase the reliance on electrical and electronic functions. The
end of this line of development was probably exchanges using reed relays for the switching
elements and electronics for nearly everything else. At this stage it became possible to make
use of tone dialing (DTMF), which dramatically reduced call connection times. Also at this
stage, the reliability of the exchanges increased dramatically. There were some more or less
abortive attempts to make fully electronic analog telephone exchanges. However, it was not
until the era of digitalization in the late 1970s that essentially fully electronic exchanges were
successfully in use.

1.1.2.1 Line Interface Circuits

In modern digital exchanges, an electronic line interface circuit is connected to every
telephone line. This feeds it with power (typically −50 V, current-limited to 30–40 mA,
see Section 1.4), detects signalling (on- or off-hook, etc.), and passes this information to a
control system. It also converts the sent and received speech signals to and from 64 kbit/s
coded data streams and separates the incoming and outgoing analog speech signals. This is
all achieved while maintaining a high level of balance on the wires making up the telephone
connection, providing rejection of common-mode interference signals. The circuit must also
be able to apply ringing signals (typically 75–100 Vrms at 16–50 Hz) and offer some means of
testing itself and the customer’s line. The rest of the exchange is then essentially an extended
computer for processing and switching the signalling and speech information from these
line interface circuits. The techniques used in line interface circuits are described in more
detail later on in this chapter, with particular emphasis on the relevance for DSL systems.
Most telephony exchanges in service today are still constructed using this technique. There
is probably another revolution due in which the exchange switching will be replaced by
packetized Internet protocol (IP) data rather than the traditional synchronous transmission
P1: shibu/Vijay
July 22, 2005 10:44 CRC-AU1913 AU1913˙Book

Overview of the POTS Environment —Signals and Circuits 5

FIGURE 1.2
Subscriber side of main distribution frame (MDF).

systems. As and when this happens, the interfaces may become distributed, with the data
passing along the access network lines as bits in part of a DSL data stream.

1.1.2.2 Main Distribution Frames

A single local exchange can service thousands of subscribers. From a practical perspective,
this means that cabling can be a challenge. In order to facilitate the distribution of cables in a
local exchange, a main distribution frame (MDF) is used. The primary function of the MDF
is to allow facile physical access to each of the subscriber lines, in order that the appropriate
connections can be made. Network cables are terminated on one side of the MDF, and cables
from various exchange1 equipment are terminated on the other side. The length of cable
between the MDF and the terminal equipment can cause issues with broadband services
such as DSL; nevertheless, from the perspective of the telephony service, this length of cable
does not typically impair operation.2 Single-pair jumpers are threaded through from the
one side to the other to provide appropriate requested services to each customer pair on
demand. On the customer side, protection modules are often used to provide both over-
voltage and over-current protection.3 A typical MDF is shown in Figure 1.2.4 In some newer
deployments of ADSL, the MDF can also incorporate the splitter function.

1.1.3 Cables
On the local loop side of the MDF, each cable that radiates out will typically contain from
one hundred to five thousand pairs. Farther down the local loop toward the subscriber,
each of these cables will typically “separate” into multiple smaller cables that are routed to
reflect the geographical distribution of the appropriate subscribers. The wiring junction at
which the larger cable divides is known as a flexibility point. The first of these flexibility
points is often known as the primary connection point (PCP), and any further flexibility

1 In some unbundled environments some of the terminal equipment may be located in a nearby building.
2 Although this cable does not typically affect the telephony performance, it may cause other issues, such as with
some line testing procedures, as described in Volume 2.
3 In fact, before the use of integrated protector modules, small open fuses known as “heat coils” were used. To this

day, local exchange technicians often refer to the ubiquitous 5-pin protector module as a “heat coil.”
4 Used with permission from “DSL Comes to Munising” by Jonathan Gennick, 30 May 2001 (http://www.oreilly.

com/news/dsl 0501.html).
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