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ADVANCES IN IMAGING AND
ELECTRON PHYSICS

VOLUME 126
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

PETER W. HAWKES
CEMES-CNRS
Toulouse, France

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
BENJAMIN KAZAN
Xerox Corporation
Palo Alto Research Center
Palo Alto, California

TOM MULVEY
Department of Electronic Engineering and Applied Physics
Aston University
Birmingham, United Kingdom
Advances in
Imaging and
Electron Physics

Edited by
PETER W. HAWKES
CEMES-CNRS
Toulouse, France

VOLUME 126

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03 04 05 06 07 08 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS

Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Future Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

A Wavelet-Based Method for Multifractal Image Analysis: From


Theoretical Concepts to Experimental Applications
A. ArnØodo, N. Decoster, P. Kestener, and S. G. Roux
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
II. Image Processing with the 2D Continuous Wavelet Transform 7
III. Test Applications of the WTMM Method to Monofractal
and Multifractal Rough Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
IV. Multifractal Analysis of High-Resolution Satellite Images
of Cloud Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
V. Multifractal Analysis of 3D Turbulence Simulation Data . . . 53
VI. Multifractal Analysis of Digitized Mammograms . . . . . . . 73
VII. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

An Analysis of the Geometric Distortions Produced by Median


and Related Image Processing Filters
E. R. Davies
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
II. Image Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
III. Shifts Produced by Median Filters in Continuous Images . . . 105
IV. Shifts Produced by Median Filters in Digital Images . . . . . 122
V. Shifts Produced by Mean Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
VI. Shifts Produced by Mode Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
VII. Shifts Produced by Rank-Order Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
VIII. Rank-Order Filters—a Didactic Example . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
IX. A Problem with Closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
X. A Median-Based Corner Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
XI. Boundary Length Measurement Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
XII. Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

v
vi CONTENTS

Two-Photon Excitation Microscopy


Alberto Diaspro and Giuseppe Chirico
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
II. Historical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
III. Basic Principles of Two-Photon Excitation of
Fluorescent Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
IV. Behavior of Fluorescent Molecules under TPE Regime . . . . 212
V. Optical Consequences and Resolution Aspects . . . . . . . . 219
VI. Architecture of Two-Photon Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . 225
VII. Application Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
VIII. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Phase Closure Imaging


AndrÉ Lannes
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
II. Phase Space and Integer Lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
III. Phase Closure Operator, Phase Closure Projection,
and Related Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
IV. Variance–Covariance Matrix of the Closure Phases . . . . . . 299
V. Spectral Phase Closure Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
VI. Reference Algebraic Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
VII. Statement of the Phase Calibration Problem . . . . . . . . . 307
VIII. Phase Calibration Discrepancy and Related Results . . . . . 309
IX. Optimal Model Phase Shift and Related Results . . . . . . . 313
X. Special Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
XI. Simulated Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
XII. Concluding Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Appendix 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Appendix 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Appendix 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Three-Dimensional Image Processing and


Optical Scanning Holography
Ting-Chung Poon
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
II. Two-Pupil Optical Heterodyne Scanning . . . . . . . . . . . 330
III. Three-Dimensional Imaging Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
IV. Optical Scanning Holography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
CONTENTS vii

V. Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347


References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

Nonlinear Image Processing using Artificial Neural Networks


Dick de Ridder, Robert P. W. Duin, Michael Egmont-
Petersen, Lucas J. Van Vliet, and Piet W. Verbeek
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
II. Applications of ANNs in Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . 356
III. Shared Weight Networks for Object Recognition . . . . . . . 366
IV. Feature Extraction in Shared Weight Networks . . . . . . . . 377
V. Regression Networks for Image Restoration . . . . . . . . . . 399
VI. Inspection and Improvement of Regression Networks . . . . . 418
VII. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
CONTRIBUTORS

Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begins.

A. ArnØodo (1), Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, 33600 Pessac, France

Giuseppe Chirico (195), LAMBS-INFM and Department of Physics,


University of Milano Biocca, 20126 Milano, Italy

E. R. Davies (93), Machine Vision Group, Department of Physics, Royal


Holloway College, University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX,
United Kingdom

N. Decoster (1), Noveltis, Parc Technologique du Canal, 31520 Ramonville


Saint Agne, France

Alberto Diaspro (195), LAMBS-INFM and Department of Physics,


University of Genoa, 16146 Genova, Italy

Robert P. W. Duin (351), Pattern Recognition Group, Department of


Applied Physics, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CJ Delft, The
Netherlands

Michael Egmont-Petersen (351), Decision Support Systems Group,


Institute of Information and Computing Sciences, Utrecht University,
3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands

P. Kestener (1), Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, 33600 Pessac, France

AndrÉ Lannes (287), Sciences de l’Univers du Centre Européen de


Recherche et de Formation Avancée en Calcul Scientifique (Suc-Cerfacs),
F-31057 Toulouse cedex, France

Ting-Chung Poon (329), Optical Image Processing Laboratory, Bradley


Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

Dick de Ridder (351), Pattern Recognition Group, Department of Applied


Physics, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands

ix
x CONTRIBUTORS

S. G. Roux (1), Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de


Lyon, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France

Lucas J. Van Vliet (351), Pattern Recognition Group, Department of


Applied Physics, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CJ Delft, The
Netherlands

Piet W. Verbeek (351), Pattern Recognition Group, Department of Applied


Physics, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
PREFACE

This latest volume of these Advances is dominated by image processing and


by a major contribution on microscopy, which is also the object of much of
the image processing. The collection opens with a contribution by
A. Arnéodo, N. Decoster, R. Kestener, and S. G. Roux on multifractal
analysis, inspired by the need to find a consistent way of characterizing
surface roughness. One of the authors of this chapter has shown that use of
the continuous wavelet transform has many advantages here and that the
method can be extended to the two-dimensional situation, which is of course
of most practical interest. This chapter provides a full account of the method
and of many realistic applications.
The second contribution is by E. R. Davies, whose work on median and
rank-order filters is well known in the field of image processing. Despite
their attractive features, these nonlinear filters also create distortions and
these are analysed very thoroughly in this chapter. The author examines
median and rank-order filters, mode filters and morphological filters and
discusses the shifts that they are liable to create. A knowledge of the
artefacts that can be generated is essential for anyone using these filters.
This brings us to a chapter by A. Diaspro and G. Chirico, who present a
form of microscopy that is attracting great interest, namely, two-photon
excitation microscopy. Alberto Diaspro is one of the leaders of this
discipline and here, the principles of the technique and a range of
applications are set out very clearly. Although two-photon microscopy is
a fairly recent development, the basic physics has a long history, which is
summarized at the beginning of the chapter with a wealth of historic
illustrations.
The problem of phase calibration is particularly acute in multi-antenna
radio imaging. A radically new approach based on graph-theoretic
reasoning has been pioneered by A. Lannes, who explains the procedure
in the fifth chapter, entitled ‘Phase closure imaging’. The mathematical
fundamentals are first presented and related to realistic practical situations,
after which a number of special cases are explored. This very full statement
of Lannes’ solution to an important and difficult problem is thus very
welcome here.
Optical scanning holography was introduced by T.-C. Poon, author of
the fourth chapter. This technique is explained in terms of the two-pupil
optical heterodyne scanning image processor, which leads on to the notion

xi
xii PREFACE

of three-dimensional point-spread functions. The sine- and cosine-Fresnel


zone plate hologram and the complex hologram are then introduced and
finally, the use of these for three-dimensional reconstruction is explained.
This is an authoritative account of a very exciting development in imaging.
We close with a long contribution on nonlinear image processing in which
the operations are performed on artificial neural networks. Here, D. de
Ridder and colleagues from the Pattern Recognition Group in Delft
University and the Institute of Information and Computing Sciences in
Utrecht University first explain how image processing is performed by
neural networks. They describe the various kinds of network and then
discuss in detail object recognition, feature extraction, image restoration and
finally, the inspection and improvement of regression networks. This
chapter has the status of a monograph on the subject and will, I am sure, be
heavily used.
In conclusion, I thank most sincerely all the contributors for taking so
much trouble to make their specialized knowledge available to a wider
audience and list the contributions planned for future volumes.

Peter W. Hawkes
FUTURE CONTRIBUTIONS

T. Aach (vol. 128)


Lapped transforms
G. Abbate
New developments in liquid-crystal-based photonic devices
S. Ando
Gradient operators and edge and corner detection
C. Beeli
Structure and microscopy of quasicrystals
I. Bloch (vol. 128)
Fuzzy distance measures in image processing
G. Borgefors
Distance transforms
B. L. Breton, D. McMullan and K. C. A. Smith (Eds)
Sir Charles Oatley and the scanning electron microscope
A. Bretto
Hypergraphs and their use in image modelling
Y. Cho (vol. 127)
Scanning nonlinear dielectric microscopy
H. Delingette
Surface reconstruction based on simplex meshes
R. G. Forbes
Liquid metal ion sources
E. Förster and F. N. Chukhovsky
X-ray optics
A. Fox
The critical-voltage effect
L. Frank and I. Müllerová (vol.128)
Scanning low-energy electron microscopy
L. Godo and V. Torra
Aggregation operators

xiii
xiv FUTURE CONTRIBUTIONS

A. Gölzhäuser
Recent advances in electron holography with point sources
A. M. Grigoryan and S. S. Agaian
Transform-based image enhancement algorithms with performance
measure.
A. Hanbury (vol. 128)
Morphology on a circle
H. F. Harmuth and B. Meffert
Calculus of finite differences in quantum electrodynamics
P. W. Hawkes (vol. 127)
Electron optics and electron microscopy: conference proceedings and
abstracts as source material
M. I. Herrera
The development of electron microscopy in Spain
J. S. Hesthaven (vol. 127)
Higher-order accuracy computational methods for time-domain
electromagnetics
D. Hitz
Recent progress on HF ECR ion sources
K. Ishizuka
Contrast transfer and crystal images
G. Kögel
Positron microscopy
W. Krakow
Sideband imaging
N. Krueger
The application of statistical and deterministic regularities in biological and
artificial vision systems
B. Lahme
Karhunen-Loeve decomposition
B. Lencová
Modern developments in electron optical calculations
M. A. O’Keefe
Electron image simulation
FUTURE CONTRIBUTIONS xv

N. Papamarkos and A. Kesidis


The inverse Hough transform
M. G. A. Paris and G. d’Ariano (vol. 128)
Quantum tomography
K. S. Pedersen, A. Lee and M. Nielsen
The scale-space properties of natural images
E. Petajan
HDTV
M. Petrou
Image registration
M. Rainforth
Recent developments in the microscopy of ceramics, ferroelectric materials
and glass
E. Rau
Energy analysers for electron microscopes
H. Rauch
The wave-particle dualism
J. J. W. M. Rosink and N. van der Vaart
HEC sources for the CRT
O. Scherzer (vol. 128)
Regularization techniques
G. Schmahl
X-ray microscopy
S. Shirai
CRT gun design methods
T. Soma
Focus-deflection systems and their applications
J.-L. Starck
The curvelet transform
I. Talmon
Study of complex fluids by transmission electron microscopy
M. Tonouchi
Terahertz radiation imaging
xvi FUTURE CONTRIBUTIONS

N. M. Towghi
Ip norm optimal filters
Y. Uchikawa
Electron gun optics
D. van Dyck
Very high resolution electron microscopy
K. Vaeth and G. Rajeswaran
Organic light-emitting arrays
C. D. Wright and E. W. Hill
Magnetic force microscopy
F. Yang and M. Paindavoine (vol. 127)
Pre-filtering for pattern recognition using wavelet transforms and neural
networks
M. Yeadon
Instrumentation for surface studies
ADVANCES IN IMAGING AND ELECTRON PHYSICS, VOL. 126

A Wavelet-Based Method for Multifractal Image Analysis: From


Theoretical Concepts to Experimental Applications

A. ARNÉODO,1 N. DECOSTER,2 P. KESTENER,1 AND S. G. ROUX3


1
Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, Avenue Schweitzer, 33600, Pessac, France
2
Noveltis, Parc Technologique du Canal, 2 avenue de l’Europe,
31520, Ramonville Saint Agne, France
3
Laboratoire de Physique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon,
46 allée d’Italie, 69364, Lyon cedex 07, France

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
II. Image Processing with the 2D Continuous Wavelet Transform . . . . . . . . 7
A. Analyzing Wavelets for Multiscale Edge Detection . . . . . . . . . . . 7
B. Characterizing the Local Regularity Properties of Rough Surfaces
with the Wavelet Transform Modulus Maxima . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1. Isotropic Dilations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2. Anisotropic Dilations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
C. The 2D Wavelet Transform Modulus Maxima (WTMM) Method . . . . . 17
1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3. Remark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4. Numerical Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
III. Test Applications of the WTMM Method to Monofractal and
Multifractal Rough Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
A. Fractional Brownian Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
B. Multifractal Rough Surfaces Generated by Random Cascades on
Separable Wavelet Orthogonal Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1. Remark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
C. Distinguishing ‘‘Multiplicative from Additive’’ Processes Underlying the
Scale Invariance Properties of Rough Surfaces from Space-Scale
Correlation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
D. Using the 2D WTMM Method to Perform Image Processing Tasks . . . . 38
IV. Multifractal Analysis of High-Resolution Satellite Images of Cloud Structure . . 41
A. Landsat Data of Marine Stratocumulus Cloud Scenes . . . . . . . . . . 43
B. Application of the 2D WTMM Method to Landsat Images of
Stratocumulus Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1. Numerical Computation of the Multifractal (q) and D(h) Spectra . . . . 45
2. WTMMM Probability Density Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
C. Space-Scale Correlation Function Analysis of Radiance Landsat Images . . . 50
D. Comparative WTMM Multifractal Analysis of Landsat Radiance Field
and Velocity and Temperature Fields in Fully Developed Turbulence . . . . 51
V. Multifractal Analysis of 3D Turbulence Simulation Data . . . . . . . . . . 53
A. Multifractal Description of Intermittency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1. Intermittency Based on the Velocity Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

1
Copyright 2003 Elsevier Science (USA).
All rights reserved.
ISSN 1076-5670/03
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