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 Editors:
Geotextile encapsulated sand elements are three-dimensional systems manufactured

Editors: Bezuijen & Vastenburg

from textile materials, non-woven materials or combinations of textile and non-
A. Bezuijen
woven materials that are filled with sand on-site. These systems are relatively new E.W. Vastenburg
and the number of applications is growing in river and coastal engineering. Quite
often Geosystems are mentioned as a possible solution, but planners, designers and
contractors feel rather hesitant about the application of geotextile encapsulated sand
elements due to a lack of experience and adequate design rules.

The use of geosystems has the advantage that local material can be applied and that
no (expensive) quarry stone needs to be extracted and transported from the mountains
to the site. Compared to traditional construction methods (with quarry stone) the
application of geotextile sand filled elements may add considerable operational
advantages to the execution of marine works and may offer attractive financial
opportunities. In the application of geotextile encapsulated sand elements however,
proper attention should be paid to the laying down of different responsibilities of the
parties in the contract.

In Geosystems. Design Rules and Applications four types of geotextile sand

Geosystems
elements are distinguished, each with specific properties: geo-bags, geo-mattresses,
geotextile tubes and geotextile containers. The focus is on the use of geosystems filled
with sand as a construction in river and coastal engineering. Geosystems filled with
sludge are not covered. The chapters “Introduction” and “General design aspects”
are followed by four chapters of the same structure dealing with the various systems.
Each of these four chapters starts with a general description and applications and
ends with a calculation example. Design aspects are dealt with in the remaining
paragraphs.

Geosystems
Geosystems. Design Rules and Applications is based on research commissioned

Design Rules and Applications

by the Dutch Rijkswaterstaat and Delft Cluster. The realisation of the Dutch version
was coordinated by a CUR-committee. The English version is a translation of the
Dutch version (CUR-publication 217). However, new developments have been added
and the text was checked once again and improved. Geosystems. Design Rules and

Design Rules and Applications

Applications is an essential reference for professionals and academics interested
in River and Coastal Engineering, but aims also at those interested in Geotechnical
Engineering.

an informa business
 Geosystems. Design Rules
and Applications

FM.indd i 10/13/2012 5:35:00 PM

FM.indd ii 10/13/2012 5:35:01 PM
 Geosystems. Design Rules
and Applications

A. Bezuijen & E.W. Vastenburg

Deltares, Delft, The Netherlands

FM.indd iii 10/13/2012 5:35:01 PM

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20130228

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-203-07286-8 (eBook - PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid-
ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.

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lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy-
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 CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by V Publishing Solutions Pvt Ltd., Chennai, India
Printed and bound in The Netherlands by PrintSupport4U, Meppel
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained
herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Innovations
reported here may not be used without the approval of the authors.
Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication
and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor
the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation
or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Published by: CRC Press/Balkema
P.O. Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bezuijen, A.
Geosystems : design rules and applications / A. Bezuijen & E.W.Vastenburg. -- 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-415-62148-9 (hardback : alk. paper) -- 1. Geotextiles.
2. Hydraulic engineering--Equipment and supplies. I.Vastenburg, E. W. II. Title.
TA455.G44B49 2013
627--dc23
2012032876

ISBN: 978-0-415-62148-9 (Hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-203-07286-8 (eBook)

FM.indd iv 10/13/2012 5:35:01 PM

 Contents

Preface ix
Notations xi
List of figures xv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Why there is a need for design rules for geotextile-encapsulated
sand elements 1
1.2 Document structure 1

2 General design aspects 3

2.1 Basic principles of geotextile-encapsulated sand elements 3
2.2 Design approach 4
2.3 Safety considerations 7
2.3.1 Introduction 7
2.3.2 Deterministic method 7
2.3.3 Potential failure mechanisms 8
2.4 Material aspects of geotextiles 9
2.4.1 Raw materials 9
2.4.2 Sand tightness 10
2.4.3 Permeability 11
2.4.4 Tensile strength and strain 11
2.4.5 Seams 12
2.4.6 Damage during installation of gravel layers 14
2.4.7 Durability 14
2.4.8 CE marking 16

3 Geotextile bags 19
3.1 Application and general experimental data 19
3.2 Installation procedure 20
3.3 Geometric design 21

FM.indd v 10/13/2012 5:35:01 PM

 vi Contents

3.4 Failure modes and safety considerations 22

3.5 Design aspects 23
3.5.1 Material choice 23
3.5.2 Required tensile strength 23
3.5.3 Stability in waves 24
3.5.4 Stability when subject to longitudinal current flows 27
3.5.5 Stability when subject to overtopping currents 29
3.5.6 Stability of geotextile bags placed in mounds 30
3.6 Construction aspects 31
3.7 Calculation example 32

4 Geotextile mattresses 37
4.1 Application areas and general experimental data 37
4.2 Installation procedure 39
4.3 Geometric design 39
4.4 Potential failure mechanisms and safety considerations 41
4.5 Design aspects 41
4.5.1 Material choice 41
4.5.2 Required tensile strength 42
4.5.3 Stability in waves 45
4.5.4 Stability in longitudinal currents 45
4.5.5 Geotechnical stability 46
4.6 Construction aspects 46
4.7 Calculation example 47

5 Geotextile tubes 51
5.1 Applications and general experimental data 51
5.2 Installation procedure 52
5.2.1 General 52
5.2.2 Pump speed and pump capacity 53
5.2.3 Fill material 55
5.3 Geometric design 57
5.4 Failure mechanisms and safety considerations 60
5.5 Design aspects 60
5.5.1 Material choice and fabrication 60
5.5.2 Required tensile strength 61
5.5.3 Stability 64
5.6 Construction aspects 66
5.7 Calculation example 67

6 Geotextile containers 71
6.1 Application areas and general experimental data 71

FM.indd vi 10/13/2012 5:35:01 PM

 Contents vii

6.2 Installation procedure 71

6.2.1 General 71
6.2.2 Fill methodology 72
6.2.3 Fill material 72
6.2.4 Degree of filling 73
6.3 Geometric design 74
6.4 Failure mechanisms and safety considerations 77
6.5 Design aspects 78
6.5.1 Material choice 78
6.5.2 Loading on geotextile while opening the split barge 78
6.5.3 Loading on geotextile upon impact on the bottom 79
6.5.4 Required tensile strength 85
6.5.5 Stability in waves 86
6.5.6 Stability in currents over the structure 87
6.5.7 Stacking stability 88
6.5.8 Influence of wave-induced liquefaction 91
6.5.9 Placement accuracy 92
6.6 Construction aspects 94
6.7 Calculation example 95

Appendix A: Permeability of geotextiles 101

Appendix B: CE marking 107
Appendix C: Design charts for the geotechnical stability of geotextile
mattresses and geotextile bags on slope revetments 113
Appendix D: Dimensions and shape of geotextile tubes 115
Appendix E: Shape and forces in geotextile tubes (Timoshenko method) 119
Appendix F: Tensile load in geotextile container during the opening
of the split barge 125
Appendix G: Fall velocity of the geotextile container 131
Appendix H: Placement accuracy for geotextile containers 135
References 139
Subject index 143

FM.indd vii 10/13/2012 5:35:01 PM

FM.indd viii 10/13/2012 5:35:01 PM
 Preface

Geotextile-encapsulated sand elements are three-dimensional systems manufactured

from textile materials that are filled with sand. They form a sub-group of a wider
system of geosynthetic solutions for erosion control that are known as Geosystems.
These elements are used in hydraulic engineering structures such as dams, dykes and
breakwaters as an alternative for quarry stone e.g. as core material. They may also be
used for bottom or bank protection or to fill up a scour hole.
The use of these elements has the advantage that local material can be utilized
and that no stone needs to be extracted and transported from a quarry to the site.
Compared to traditional construction methods (with quarry stone) the application of
geotextile sand filled elements may add considerable operational advantages to the
execution of hydraulic works and may offer attractive financial opportunities and
environmental aspects.
New and promising developments in hydraulic engineering, such as geotextile-
encapsulated sand elements, are sometimes hampered by the lack of design rules.
That’s probably the reason why planners, designers and contractors are therefore
rather hesitant to apply these materials.
Most of the design rules are empirical in nature and this means that existing
experience is therefore required to design new structures. For this reason it is a chal-
lenge to design a structure when only limited experience is available with that type of
material.
This was the idea of the CUR-committee F42 (CUR Building & Infrastructure)
where existing experiences and research results were gathered and compiled in the
CUR-publication 217 “Ontwerpen met geotextiele zandelementen”.
The original CUR-217 publication is in Dutch and this manual makes the con-
tents of this publication available for an international audience. Most of this manual
is a translation of CUR-217. However, additions have been made to give this manual
more international relevance. In addition, some improvements and corrections have
been made. When the CUR publication 217 was published the CUR-committee F42
had the following members:

• Dr. J.G. de Gijt (Chairman, Rotterdam Public Works*/Delft University of

Technology)
• G.J. Akkerman (Royal Haskoning)
• Dr. A. Bezuijen (Editor, Deltares*/Ghent University)
• E. Berendsen (Ministry of Public Works*)

FM.indd ix 10/13/2012 5:35:01 PM

 x Preface

• J. de Boer (GeopexProducts (Europe) B.V.*)

• C.A.J.M. Brok (Huesker Synthetic GmbH*)
• D. Heijboer (Royal Haskoning)
• M. Klein Breteler (Deltares)
• S. Overal (Ministry of Public Works)
• H.J.W. Ruiter (Van Oord Netherlands n.v.*)
• W.H. Smits (Amsterdam municipality*)
• W.H. Tutuarima (–)
• E.W. Vastenburg (Editor, Deltares/NGO*)
• R. Veldhoen (Van den Herik B.V. Sliedrecht*)
• D.P. de Wilde (Ministry of Public Works)
• E.L.F. Zengerink (Ten Cate Nicolon B.V.*)
• K.W. Pilarczyk (Ministry of Public Works)
• A. Jonker (CUR, coordinator)
* Financiers CUR publication 217.

For this version, the translation was made by translation company CPLS. This
translation was edited by E.W. Vastenburg and Dr. A. Bezuijen. Final editing and
quality scan was done by C. Lawson. In addition, technical changes are discussed with
the members of the F42 committee.
Research for this publication and translation in English was funded by Delft Clus-
ter and Deltares. The Dutch Chapter of IGS, NGO, participated in the research and
the translation work for this publication.

FM.indd x 10/13/2012 5:35:01 PM

 Notations

A Filled cross-sectional area of the geotextile-encapsulated sand m2

element (perpendicular to the longest axis)
Ag Flow surface m2
As Cross-sectional area in the horizontal plane m2
B Exponent dependent on the interaction between waves –
and structure
b Width of structural element (geotextile element) m
bm Width of the geotextile mattress m
bg Width of the geotextile m
bf Thickness of the filter layer m
bk Thickness of the clay layer m
b0 Maximum width of the opening of the split barge m
Btot Total width of the layer of the geotextile containers under m
consideration
c – Concentration of the sand in the mixture m3/m3
– Constant –
cv Consolidation coefficient of the grain skeleton m2/s
Cd Drag force coefficient –
Cu Uniformity coefficient –
d Drainage distance m
D Diameter of the geotextile tube at 100% filling m
Dd Maximum diameter of the tubes or sausages m
(in the case of geotextile mattresses)
Deq Equivalent thickness of the structural element m
Dmf Average grain diameter m
Dn Nominal thickness of a geotextile bag m
Dk Effective thickness of the geotextile-encapsulated sand element m
Dx Sieve size through which x% fraction of the sand material passes m

FM.indd xi 10/13/2012 5:35:02 PM

 xii Notations

Dt Thickness of the shear-susceptible layer of the geotextile containers m

E Modulus of elasticity of the geotextile kN/m2
or
N/mm2
Egeo Maximum energy to be dissipated by the geotextile J/m
per unit of length
Efall Fall energy per unit of length J/m
Efill Maximum energy to be dissipated by the fill material J/m
per unit of length
f Degree of filling with respect to the cross sectional area –
(percentage of the area of the theoretical circle)
fm Mobilised surface friction coefficient between adjacent –
geotextile containers
Frac Ratio of the fall energy to the maximum of Efill and Egeo –
F Stability factor –
Fo Outward force created by the hydraulic head N/m
perpendicular to the slope per unit length
g Gravitational acceleration m/s2
G Submerged weight of a layer of containers kg/m
per unit length
h – Height of the geotextile-encapsulated sand element m
– Water depth m
H Height m
Hpile Height of the pile m
h Filled height of the geotextile tube m
Hs Significant wave height m
i Hydraulic gradient in the fill material –
J Tensile stiffness of the geotextile kN/m
or N/m
ks Permeability of the fill material m/s
kg Permeability perpendicular to the geotextile m/s
kr Nikuradse roughness m
KT Turbulence factor –
Kh Factor related to the depth –
Ks Factor related to the slope –
L Length of the geotextile-encapsulated sand element m
l Length of the geotextile mattress m
L0 Wave length in deep water m
Lbw Length of the geotextile mattress above water m
Low Length of the geotextile mattress under water m
M Mass of the geotextile-encapsulated sand element kg
n Porosity of the fill material of the structural elements –
O90 Pore size of the geotextile that corresponds to the average m
diameter of the sand fraction of which 90% remains on the
geotextile (in the wet sieving method)
p Pressure in the fill material kN/m2
q Specific discharge m/s

FM.indd xii 10/13/2012 5:35:02 PM

 Notations xiii

Q Sand production m3/hr

Rc Distance between the crest and still water line m
r Radius of curvature at a random point on the geotextile skin m
sop Wave steepness –
S Circumference of the cross-section of the geotextile-encapsulated m
sand element (perpendicular to the axis)
tg Thickness of the geotextile m
τ′ Characteristic time –
T Tensile load in the geotextile kN/m
or N/m
Td Characteristic drainage period s
Tn Characteristic compression period s
Tm Maximum allowable tensile load in the geotextile kN/m
or N/m
Tseam Tensile load of the seam kN/m
Tp Peak period s
ucr Critical horizontal flow velocity along the surface of the structure m/s
v Fall velocity of the geotextile-encapsulated sand element m/s
vsed The sedimentation rate (the rate at which the sand bed rises) m/s
vcr Pump speed m/s
v∞ Terminal fall velocity m/s
V Volume of the geotextile-encapsulated sand element m3
z Depth of the subsoil m
w0 Fall velocity of a single grain m/s
α Slope angle of the structure deg
αc One-dimensional compressibility of the grain skeleton upon m2/kN
discharge
β Angle of shear of the geotextile-encapsulated sand elements deg
Χ Shape factor according to Van Rhee [29] –
γ Overall safety factor –
δ Friction angle between geotextile element and the subsoil deg
Δt Relative density of the structural elements/relative density –
of the granular filter
Δ Relative density of the fill material –
Δs Relative density of the subsoil –
Δn Porosity reduction under constant wave load –
Δφ Difference in piezometric head over the geotextile m
εm Maximum strain of the geotextile %
εmax Strain at maximum allowable tensile strength of the geotextile %
φ Angle of internal friction of the type of encapsulated sand element deg
φs Angle of internal friction of the fill material deg
ϕ Numerical constant –
Φ Stability parameter –
ρ Density of the geotextile-encapsulated sand element kg/m3
ρs Density of the fill material (mass of the grains) kg/m3
ρmat Density of the saturated geotextile-encapsulated sand element kg/m3
ρw Density of water kg/m3

FM.indd xiii 10/13/2012 5:35:02 PM

 xiv Notations

ρ′ Buoyant density of the geotextile container kg/m3

σi′ Average effective stress of the sand in the container kN/m2
sp Standard deviation of the placement accuracy m
Φ Expected maximum hydraulic head difference over m
the outermost layer of the geotextile containers
ξ Breaker parameter –
Ψ – Shields parameter
– Permittivity s–1
– Dilatancy angle deg
Ψ0 Generation of excess pore pressure for undrained load kN/m2s
Ψu Valuation factor dependent on type and quality of material –
and structure
ν Kinematic viscosity m2/s

FM.indd xiv 10/13/2012 5:35:02 PM

 List of figures

2.1 Iterative design process for geotextile-encapsulated

sand elements 6
2.2 Fault tree for a structure with geotextile-encapsulated sand elements 9
3.11 Geotextile bags used as a beach groyne (Saipem, Angola) 19
3.21 Example of an elongated geotextile bag [14] 21
3.3 Definition of effective thickness for installation geometry I and II 26
3.44 Application areas for stability formulae 26
3.5 View from above of longitudinal current flow in a geotextile
bags structure 27
3.64 Description of the various parameters in this example 32
4.12 Use of a geotextile mattress as bank protection at Nageler Vaart
(The Netherlands) 38
4.24 Profix® tube mattress and the BeauMatt® mattress 40
4.34,2 Tensile loads in geotextile mattress during hoisting 42
4.44 Tensile loads in the geotextile mattress as a result of anchoring.
Low and Lbw are the lengths along the mattress 43
4.54 Definition sketch of the calculation example for geotextile mattresses 47
5.11 Construction using geotextile tubes (Incheon bridge, South Korea) 51
5.21 Temporarily securing geotextile tube 53
5.31 Laying out and pumping up a geotextile tube 53
5.4 Calculation of the sedimentation rate of sand in a geotextile tube 57
5.54 Principle of multilayer stacking 58
5.6 Initial estimation of filled geotextile tube dimensions 58
5.73 Drainage port in action during filling a geotextile tube
for Delta flume tests [38] 61
5.8 Calculated dimensions of the geotextile tube above water as a function
of the degree of filling. Assumed unit weight 20 kN/m3 for pressure
on the upper side of the geotextile tube during the filling 5 kPa
(Note: this figure applies only for 5 kPa. The degree of filling,
height and circumference of the geotextile tube are thus related
to each other as above) 63

FM.indd xv 10/13/2012 5:35:02 PM

 xvi List of figures

5.9 Calculated dimensions of the geotextile tube below water as a function

of the degree of filling. Assumed unit weight 10 kN/m3 for overpressure
on the upper side of the geotextile tube during the filling 5 kPa
(Note: this figure applies only for 5 kPa. The degree of filling,
height and circumference of the geotextile tube are thus related
to each other as above) 63
5.10 Theoretical required tensile strength of geotextile as a function
of the circumference of the geotextile tube at a pressure during filling
of 5 kPa on the upper side of the tube 64
5.11 Cross-sectional sketch of the dam structure 67
6.1 Application of a geotextile container (filling, closure, releasing, falling) 72
6.24 Sketch of a partially impeded geotextile container during the drop 73
6.3 Relationship between degree of filling, filled cross-sectional area
and circumference of geotextile containers. For example, a geotextile
container with a cross-sectional area of 10 m2 with a degree of filling
of 40% (f = 0.4) will have a circumference of about 18 m 74
6.4 Estimation of the required number of geotextile containers
in a structure 76
6.5 Minimum required circumference of a geotextile container
(according to formula 6.2) as a function of the filled cross-section
and opening width of the split barge. For example, a split barge with
a maximum opening width of 2 m, a geotextile container filled with
sand and a filled cross-section of 10 m2, a minimum circumference
of 17.5 m is required 77
6.64 Simulated fall of geotextile container from split barge. Note that
during the fall the container height is greater than the width.
This depiction is only of qualitative value since the behaviour
of the geotextile container here is simplified 80
6.7 Field measurements Kandia dam: Filling of the first instrumented
geotextile container for which no effective stress was measured during
the fall since the fill material is saturated with water 83
6.8 Field measurements Kandia dam: Filling of the second instrumented
geotextile. The unsaturated filling resulted in limited load being exerted
on the geotextile during the fall 84
6.9 Fall velocity as a function of the fall height. (=the water depth minus
the draught of the split barge) for a container with a volume of 260 m3,
saturated fill (ρ = 1800 kg/m3) and unsaturated fill (ρ = 1460 kg/m3) 85
6.10 Definition sketch of critical flow velocity over and along the structure 88
6.114 Definition sketch of container stacking 90
6.12 Definition sketch of container stacking with a predefined slip plane 90
6.133 Model tests at Deltares on the dropping of geotextile containers 93
6.14 Definition sketch of the drop of geotextile containers 94
A.1 Blocking mechanism 103
A.2 Clogging mechanism 104
B.1 Example of CE marking 107

FM.indd xvi 10/13/2012 5:45:33 PM

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