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RESEARCH ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE
MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA

The tenth volume in the TIRF-Routledge series, this book features research on
the teaching and learning of English in the Middle East and North Africa
(MENA). With chapters written by TIRF Doctoral Dissertation Grant awardees
and internationally known scholars, the volume addresses contemporary challenges
and considerations to teaching English in the MENA context. With empirical
research covering a wide range of under-studied contexts, this book provides
important insights and future directions to improve research and instruction.
Offering up-to-date research at the primary, secondary, and post-secondary levels,
this volume is an essential resource for language education programs and pre-service
teachers.

Kathleen M. Bailey a Professor Emerita at the Middlbury Institute of Interna­

tional Studies at Monterey, USA and a TIRF Trustee.

David Nunan is Professor Emeritus of Applied Linguistics at the University of

Hong Kong, President Emeritus and Distinguished Research Professor at Ana­
heim University in California, and a TIRF Trustee.
GLOBAL RESEARCH ON TEACHING AND LEARNING
ENGLISH

Co-published with The International Research Foundation

for English Language Education (TIRF)
Kathleen M. Bailey & Ryan M. Damerow, Series Editors

Bailey & Damerow, Eds.

Teaching and Learning English in the Arabic-Speaking World

Christison, Christian, Duff, & Spada, Eds.

Teaching and Learning English Grammar: Research Findings and Future Directions

Crandall & Christison, Eds.

Teacher Education and Professional Development in TESOL: Global Perspectives

Carrier, Damerow, & Bailey, Eds.

Digital Language Learning and Teaching: Research, Theory, and Practice

Crandall & Bailey, Eds.

Global Perspectives on Language Education Policies

Papageorgiou & Bailey, Eds.

Global Perspectives on Language Assessment: Research, Theory, and Practice

Damerow & Bailey, Eds.

Chinese-Speaking Learners of English: Research, Theory, and Practice

Bailey & Christian, Eds.

Research on Teaching and Learning English in Under-Resourced Contexts

Christison, Crandall, & Christian, Eds.

Research on Integrating Language and Content in Diverse Contexts

For additional information on titles in the Global Research on Teaching and

Learning English series visit www.routledge.com/Global-Research-on-Teaching-
and-Learning-English/book-series/TIRF
RESEARCH ON ENGLISH
LANGUAGE TEACHING
AND LEARNING IN THE
MIDDLE EAST AND
NORTH AFRICA

Edited by Kathleen M. Bailey and David Nunan

A co-publication with The International Research Foundation for English

Language Education (TIRF).
Cover image: © Getty Images
First published 2024
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 selection and editorial matter, Kathleen M. Bailey and David Nunan;
individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Kathleen M. Bailey and David Nunan to be identified as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters,
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.

ISBN: 978-1-032-32026-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-30490-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-31244-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003312444

Typeset in Bembo
by Taylor & Francis Books
We are pleased to dedicate this book to three education
leaders in the Middle East and North Africa:
Dr. Ali Al-Sharhan, former TIRF Trustee and former Min­
ister of Education, UAE
Professor Mohammed Dahbi, Al Akhawayn University,
Morocco
Professor Abdul Gabbar Al Sharafi, Sultan Qaboos Uni­
versity, Oman
Dr. Al-Sharhan is a former TIRF Trustee. He was instru­
mental in securing the Sheikh Nahayan Fellowships,
which were administered by TIRF and resulted in the
support of nine young scholars, all of whom contributed
to the 2014 TIRF volume, Teaching and Learning English in
the Arabic-speaking World.
Professor Dahbi and Professor Al Sharafi both reviewed
the applications for the Sheikh Nahayan Fellowships.
Subsequently, Professor Dahbi provided feedback on the
chapters for the volume and Professor Al Sharafi con­
tributed a chapter to that first publication in the TIRF-
Routledge series.
We are grateful for these leaders’ expertise, their time,
and their effort in support of TIRF and of education in the
Middle East and North Africa. With this dedication, we
wish to honor their many contributions to English lan­
guage teaching and research.
CONTENTS

List of illustrations x
Foreword xii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
List of contributors xx

1 ELT in the Middle East and North Africa: A survey of the

landscape 1
David Nunan

PART I
Teachers and teaching 21
2 English reading in primary school students in Lebanon 23
Rana Aridi, Eva Kozma, Sara Kassab, Kara McBride,
Mirvat Merhi, and Rajani Shrestha
3 Teaching and assessing speaking in the context of curricular
reform: The case of Israel 36
Orly Haim and Tziona Levi
viii Contents

4 Moroccan teachers’ perceptions of EFL instruction in the wake

of the COVID-19 pandemic: Lessons learned 49
Adil Bentahar, Mohammed Elmeski, and Mohammed Hassim
5 The communicative orientation of EFL classrooms: The
Tunisian context 64
Khaled el Houche
6 Matches and mismatches between Egyptian high school EFL
teachers’ grammar instruction practices and beliefs 76
Noha Abdelhamied Ibrahim and Muhammad M. M. Abdel Latif

PART II
Identity and affect 89
7 EFL learner identity and L2 pragmatic choices: Evidence from
the Omani EFL context 91
Fatema Al-Rubai’ey
8 Culture, motivation, and self-efficacy in the Sudanese EFL
context 103
Elham Yahia and Aymen Elsheikh
9 An English language teacher candidate’s tensions in the
context of Turkey: What does an identity-oriented practicum
course offer? 114
Özgehan Uştuk and Bedrettin Yazan

PART III
Academic writing 129
10 Metadiscourse in academic abstracts written by Algerian,
Saudi, and native English researchers 131
Tarek Assassi
11 Introducing a curriculum-based tutoring model in the
foundation English program at Qatar University 144
Mansoor Al-Surmi, Pakize Uludag, and Mohammad Manasreh
12 Teaching academic writing in the online environment:
Challenges and benefits in the context of higher education in
the UAE 158
Doaa Hamam and Christine Coombe
 Contents ix

PART IV
Policy 171
13 Linguistic visibility in the University of Bahrain’s linguistic
landscape 173
Yasser Ahmed Gomaa
14 Factors influencing Iranian language education policy: An
empirical investigation 185
Mahdi Dahmardeh and David Nunan
15 Language preferences in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan:
An exploratory study 197
Fatima Esseili
16 Factors contributing to Gaza pre-service teachers’ poor
proficiency in English Language 209
Enas Abdullah Rajab Hammad

Index 222
ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures
0.1 TIRF grantees who have authored a chapter in the
TIRF-Routledge “Global Research” Series xvii
4.1 Teachers’ training in remote instruction and preferred
instructional modes 55
4.2 Teachers’ self-reported ICT proficiency and preferred
instructional modes 56
4.3 PD in remote instruction and student learning online 56
4.4 Teachers’ self-reported ICT proficiency and the frequency of
their online instructional adjustments compared to face-to­
face instruction 57
4.5 Teachers’ perceptions of resources available for online
instruction 58
4.6 Ranking of the online tools that teachers continued to use in
face-to-face instruction 59
9.1 Nihat’s digital collage 120
13.1 Examples of UoB campus signs 178
13.2 Examples of nonverbal elements in UoB campus signage 179
13.3 Examples of top-down UoB campus signage 180
13.4 Examples of bottom-up UoB campus signage 181
 List of illustrations xi

Tables
2.1 Students scoring at or below grade-level prerequisite cut-offs
for the letter name task and letter sound task 30
2.2 Students scoring at or below grade-level prerequisite cut-offs
for the sight word task and the reading comprehension tasks 31
2.3 Most common barriers to implementing QITABI 2
components in class 32
3.1 The development of the construct of LAL 38
3.2 EFL teachers’ LAL: results of t-tests 41
3.3 Relationships between teachers’ dimensions of LAL and their
reported practices 43
4.1 Proficiency in ICT by Age Group (n = 356) 53
4.2 Proficiency in ICT by Gender (n = 356) 54
5.1 Frequency of teachers’ responses to items about teaching
approaches 68
5.2 Frequency of teachers’ responses to items about roles 69
5.3 Percentages of time for four patterns of interaction 71
6.1 Matches and mismatches between the teachers’ grammar
instruction practices and beliefs 86
10.1 Hyland’s taxonomy of metadiscoursal devices 133
10.2 The characteristics of the compiled corpus 136
10.3 The frequencies of interactive and interactional metadiscourse
devices in abstracts written by Algerian scholars 137
10.4 The frequencies of interactive and interactional metadiscourse
devices in abstracts written by Saudi scholars 138
10.5 Frequencies of interactive and interactional metadiscourse
devices in abstracts written by native scholars 138
10.6 Metadiscourse markers in native (N), Saudi (S), and Algerian
(A) abstracts 139
11.1 Students’ stage ranking by tutoring service type 150
11.2 Students’ writing aspect ranking by tutoring service type 151
11.3 Students’ tutoring expectations by tutoring service type 153
13.1 Participants’ perspectives on the value of languages used on
campus 182
14.1 Key stages of the Iranian Educational System 186
15.1 Jordanians’ language preferences by interlocutor 203
15.2 Percentages of participants’ language preference use by
activity/topic 204
FOREWORD

A number of years ago, I started my English language education career, teaching

general English in a university continuing education program for Egyptian adults.
My students back then came from all walks of life, ranging from university stu­
dents to adults working in different professions. Their dream was to able to speak
and write English like native speakers from the United States and the United
Kingdom. Their motivation was to be able to travel or to find good work
opportunities in international companies and organizations.
Since that time, the status of English in the world and in the Middle East and
North African (MENA) region has changed, and the native speaker construct has
diminished over the years. English is now viewed as a global lingua franca, driven
mainly by education systems worldwide, including those in the MENA countries. All
the countries in the region promote bilingualism, where the priority is the national
language, with the teaching of English also viewed as a priority. In these countries,
English is typically taught as the first foreign language starting in primary schools.
What makes this book so different from the many resources that are now available
in the TESOL field is the number and breadth of research studies conducted across the
MENA region. With twenty (20) countries in the MENA region, this book encom­
passes 70% of the region including articles from fourteen (14) different countries:
Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, Palestine,
Qatar, Sudan, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates. The volume offers an up-to­
date perspective on the state of English language education across the countries in the
region. making it a valuable contribution to the field. The research reports within the
book cover a range of topics, insights, and experiences, thus providing educators,
researchers, and policymakers with a valuable resource for understanding the current
linguistic landscape in the region. Here I will comment briefly on the diverse topics
covered in this volume.
 Foreword xiii

The chapter from Algeria concludes that although all Arab countries share a
common language, Arabic, when it comes to writing and publishing applied lin­
guistic research articles in English, Saudi, and Algerian researchers differ in their
use of rhetorical conventions in persuasion. Moving on to the chapter based in
Bahrain, the author investigates the public linguistic landscape of the University
of Bahrain and concludes that while Arabic dominates the signs on campus,
English does have substantial visibility.
In the chapter based on research in Egypt, the authors conclude that the
grammar-translation and exam-driven approach to teaching English remains pre­
valent in public schools. The chapter from Israel reports on the introduction of a
new nationwide, computerized English language proficiency test in Israeli grade
12 high schools. This new test motivated teachers to focus on the teaching of
speaking skills in their classes.
The chapter from Iran examines the factors that influence the country’s language
education policy. Interestingly, Iranian school students are required to study both
Arabic (viewed as the language of the Quran) and English, alongside their mother
tongue, Farsi, starting from grade 6 until grade 12. The teaching of English in Iranian
public schools follows a traditional approach, driven by a university entry exam that
consists of discrete test items assessing grammar and vocabulary. The chapter on
language preferences in Jordan reveals that Jordanians hold very positive attitudes
towards Arabic, their mother tongue, but less positive attitudes towards Arabizi, the
mixing of Arabic and English.
Two chapters address the impact of COVID-19. In Lebanon, young learners in
grades 1–4 experienced learning loss in reading skills and overall language develop­
ment in either their L1 or L2 or both. In Morocco, school teachers initially reported
that teaching online was an overall negative experience. When they went back to
face-to-face instruction, however, they acknowledged they had gained new skills in
technology that could be applied in their classes.
The chapter from Oman focuses on university English language learners and their
perception that using Arabic pragmatic norms while communicating in English
reflects their culture and identity. They do not view that use as a reflection of their
pragmatic competence or incompetence in English. University students are also the
focus of the chapter from Palestine, which addresses the challenges faced by
teachers and students in the Gaza University pre-service teachers’ preparation
program. The challenges include large classes and the use of traditional
grammar-translation teaching methods, similar to the results of the study in
Egypt on teaching English in public schools.
The chapter from Qatar focuses on the implementation of an academic writing
tutorial center within the English Department of the Foundation Program at
Qatar University. English students found the new program to be more effective
than that offered at a central university writing center. The qualitative study
conducted in Sudan explores the interrelationships among self-efficacy, motiva­
tion, and culture of five college students studying English and translation. The
xiv Foreword

findings indicate that their self-efficacy, culture, and real-life experiences influ­
enced their motivation to learn English.
The chapter from Tunisia highlights the discrepancy between public school tea­
chers’ self-reported beliefs about using communicative language teaching methods in
their classes and their actual practice of traditional teacher-centered classroom
approaches. The chapter from the United Arab Emirates investigates the challenges
and benefits of online academic writing classes during the pandemic, as experienced
by teachers in a university in the UAE. Initially, numerous challenges were reported;
however, teachers discovered the advantages of online teaching and now embrace
blended and hybrid methods. The authors note that with the advent of ChatGPT,
more research is needed on integrating AI (artificial intelligence) into writing
instruction, along with the development of robust policies to manage plagiarism and
ethical considerations in AI-mediated academic writing.
These chapters provide a view of the diversity of educational concerns being
studied in the MENA region. The volume should be of interest to a wide range
of readers, including English teachers, teachers in training, teacher educators,
researchers, and policymakers. In closing, I want to extend my deepest apprecia­
tion to the editors, who are my TESOL role models and whose books and pub­
lications have guided and inspired me throughout my career. I thank them and
the contributors for putting together this insightful collection of research articles.
This book offers a wealth of knowledge and shared experiences for those of us
who are interested and invested in ensuring the effectiveness of English language
teaching and learning in the MENA region.

Deena Boraie
Professor of Practice, Education
Provost of The Knowledge Hub Universities, Cairo, Egypt
PREFACE

It was in March 2013 that we first met with Naomi Silverman, who was a Senior
Editor at Routledge at the time. We wanted to share with her an idea for a book
consisting of research reports on projects funded by TIRF. Naomi liked the idea,
but she took it much further than we had expected. In fact, she suggested a series
of books based on TIRF-sponsored research. As we left that meeting, we felt like
we had intended to ask her for a date but ended up getting engaged! That was
the beginning of the series, “Global Research on Teaching and Learning Eng­
lish,” co-published by TIRF and Routledge.
That first volume in the series was entitled Teaching and Learning English in the
Arabic-speaking World. Published in 2014, it consisted of ten chapters reporting on
original empirical studies, nine of which were written by the recipients of the
Sheikh Nahayan Fellowships, adjudicated by TIRF. Those chapters provided
information about research conducted in Egypt, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. We co-authored the introductory
chapter, while the summary and concluding observations were written by our
colleague, Dick Tucker, one of the founding Trustees of TIRF.
Now, after a decade of work on the series, we are pleased to provide the preface
for the tenth volume, in which we focus once more on English language learning
and teaching in the region. In fact, four of the authors from that first book in the
series (Muhammad Abdel Latif, Mansoor Al-Surmi, Fatima Esseili, and Enas
Hammad) have supported TIRF again with their time and their scholarship by
contributing chapters to this book. We are grateful to them and to all the other
authors in the present volume for their commitment and their hard work. We
particularly appreciate their contributions because all the authors and editors in the
series agree to forgo all royalties or honoraria, so that any profits from the book
sales can be channeled to supporting TIRF’s ongoing programs.
xvi Preface

In recent years, several edited volumes have focused on important develop­

ments in the fields of language teaching and learning in the Middle East and
North Africa. Several of these have been published by TESOL Arabia, which
produces an annual collection of its conference proceedings, covering a range of
teaching and research issues in the area. TESOL Arabia has also produced 24
issues of the journal, Perspectives.
In 2017, English Language Education Policy in the Middle East and North Africa
(Kirkpatrick, 2017) was published by Springer. It consists of an introduction and
15 chapters, covering important language policy issues in Bahrain, Egypt, Iran,
Israel, Kuwait, Lybia, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria,
Tunisia, Turkey, and the UAE.
The volume entitled Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning: The Case of the
Middle East and North Africa (Reinders, Coombe, Littlejohn, & Tafazoli, 2019) was
published by Palgrave MacMillan. The chapters covered several key innovations in
the region, including task-based learning and teaching, reading for science, online
teacher education, language learners’ telecollaboration, and creating culturally
appropriate English teaching materials.
More recently, two volumes have focused on the important issue of identity as it
relates to language learning, teaching, and use in the region. Linguistics Identities in
the Arab Gulf States: Waves of Change (Hopkyns & Zoghbor, 2022) and Language and
Identity in the Arab World (Al Rashdi & Mehta, 2022) were both published by
Routledge.
We are pleased to add the current volume to the collection of published scholar­
ship produced in the Middle East and North Africa. Bringing this book to fruition
has involved many challenges due to the pandemic. Some of the TIRF Doctoral
Dissertation Grant recipients we originally approached were unable to contribute
chapters, due to serious health challenges experienced by them and their family
members. Some potential authors were facing closure of their schools and programs,
while others’ research projects had been cancelled because of COVID. For these
reasons, we are particularly happy to have met (digitally speaking) several new col­
leagues, who worked to meet our deadlines and incorporate our feedback. We are
delighted to welcome them as part of the TIRF family of teachers and researchers.
The series, now spanning a full decade, is strategically important to TIRF and
its trustees, as its purpose goes beyond just a publishing activity. It allows us to
draw attention to high-quality research projects, leverage partnerships and
funding to support research, mentor the next generation of scholars in English
language education, and add to the knowledge base of research in our field – all
while working toward our mission of improving individuals’ lives through lan­
guage acquisition. Figure 0.1 shows stars placed in the hometowns of each of
the TIRF grantees to date, who have authored a paper in at least one of the
TIRF-Routledge “Global Research” series, including those in this volume.
You can imagine the good work being done globally by our grantees and the
many people they have influenced.
 Preface xvii

FIGURE 0.1 TIRF grantees who have authored a chapter in the TIRF-Routledge
“Global Research” Series
Source: Designed by Rawpixel.com / Freepik.

The particular regional focus of the current volume was decided upon for several
reasons. First, we sought to give educators a voice and a platform to highlight parti­
cular issues in their individual contexts in the MENA region. There continues to be a
need for research on English language education there, and TIRF wants to do its part
to address this issue. Second, we have adopted regional foci in previous volumes in the
“Global Research” series in the past – Arabic-speaking nations (as mentioned above)
and in China, another fascinating, rich context for researching English language
teaching and learning. We aspire to continue to leverage this Series to further address
English language education in particular countries and regions. Finally, the interna­
tional focus of TIRF’s work – addressing language education in locations beyond the
borders of native English-speaking countries – is at the core of TIRF’s mission.
It is our hope that this book will add to the growing body of research on
English language teaching and learning being conducted in the Middle East and
North Africa. After all, for newcomers to TIRF, the “R” in our acronym stands
for “research.” All programmatic and service-oriented activities we undertake as
an organization are underpinned by research.

Kathleen M. Bailey, Monterey, California

Ryan M. Damerow, Interlochen, Michigan
May, 2023

References
Al Rashdi, F., & Mehta, S. R. (Eds.). (2022). Language and identity in the Arab world.
Routledge.
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