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French Creoles
A Comprehensive and Comparative Grammar

French Creoles: A Comprehensive and Comparative Grammar is the first


complete reference to present the morphology, grammar, and syntax of a
representative selection of French creoles in one volume.

The book is organised to promote a thorough understanding of the grammar


of French creoles and presents its complexities in a concise and readable
form. An extensive index, cross-referencing, and a generous use of headings
provide readers with immediate access to the information they require.
The varieties included within the volume provide a representative collection
of French creoles from the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans, including:
Mauritian Creole, Seychelles Creole, Réunion Creole (where relevant),
Haitian Creole, Martinique Creole, Guadeloupe Creole, Guyanese French
Creole, Karipuna, St. Lucia Creole, Louisiana Creole, and Tayo.
By providing a comprehensive description of a range of French creoles in a
clear and non-technical manner, this grammar is the ideal reference for all
linguists and researchers with an interest in Creole studies and in French,
descriptive and historical linguistics.

Anand Syea is Reader in Linguistics at the University of Westminster


(London) and a native speaker of Mauritian Creole.
Routledge Comprehensive Grammars

Comprehensive Grammars are available for the following languages:

Bengali
Burmese
Cantonese
Catalan
Chinese
Danish
Dutch
French Creoles
Greek
Indonesian
Japanese
Kazakh
Modern Welsh
Modern Written Arabic
Panjabi
Slovene
Swedish
Turkish
Ukrainian

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French Creoles
A Comprehensive and
Comparative Grammar

Anand Syea
First published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Anand Syea
The right of Anand Syea to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-1-138-01564-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-38858-8 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon and Gill Sans


by Apex CoVantage, LLC

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To my family and my very good friend, Robert Leyland
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Contents

List of tables xv
Acknowledgements xvii
List of abbreviations xviii
List of symbols xix

1 Introduction 1
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Theories of creole development 2
1.1.1 Monogenesis theory 2
1.1.2 Substratist theory 3
1.1.3 Superstratist theory 3
1.1.4 Universalist theory 4
1.1.5 Feature pool hypothesis – an ecological approach 5
1.2 Contemporary debates 6
1.3 The comparative approach 7
1.4 About this book 9
1.5 About the French creoles 10
1.5.1 The Atlantic French creoles 10
1.5.2 The French creoles of the Americas 11
1.5.3 The French creoles of the Indian Ocean 12
1.5.4 The French creole of New Caledonia (Pacific) 13

2 Nouns 14
2.0 Introduction 14
2.1 General 14
2.2 Nouns in French 16
2.2.1 Subcategories of nouns 16
vii
Contents 2.2.2 Gender 18
2.2.3 Number 20
2.2.4 Agreement 21
2.2.5 Word order 23
2.3 Nouns in the French creoles 23
2.3.1 Subcategories of nouns 25
2.3.2 Gender 28
2.3.3 Number 31
2.3.4 Definiteness and specificity 35
2.3.5 Bare nouns 35
2.3.6 Noun-noun constructions 41
2.3.7 Nouns and derivational morphology
in the French creoles 44
2.4 Concluding remarks 46

3 Determiners 47
3.0 Introduction 47
3.1 General 47
3.2 Determiners in French 49
3.2.1 The definite article 49
3.2.2 The indefinite article 50
3.2.3 The partitive article 51
3.3 Determiners in the French creoles 52
3.3.1 Loss of French definite articles 53
3.3.2 The indefinite article 59
3.3.3 The definite determiner 61
3.3.4 The demonstrative determiner 74
3.3.5 The possessive determiner 78
3.4 Concluding remarks 84

4 Pronouns 85
4.0 Introduction 85
4.1 General 85
4.2 Pronouns in French 86
4.2.1 Personal pronouns 86
4.2.2 Demonstrative pronouns 90
4.2.3 Possessive pronouns 90
4.2.4 Reflexive pronouns 91
4.2.5 Impersonal/expletive pronouns 92
4.3 Pronouns in the French creoles 93
viii

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4.3.1 Personal pronouns in the French creoles 93 Contents
4.3.1.1 Personal pronouns in the IOC 93
4.3.1.2 Personal pronouns in Haitian 96
4.3.1.3 Personal pronouns in Lesser
Antillean creoles 98
4.3.1.4 Personal pronouns in Guyanese 100
4.3.1.5 Personal pronouns in Karipuna 101
4.3.1.6 Personal pronouns in Louisiana Creole 102
4.3.2 Demonstrative pronouns in the French creoles 104
4.3.2.1 Demonstrative pronouns in the IOC 104
4.3.2.2 Demonstrative pronouns in Haitian 105
4.3.2.3 Demonstrative pronouns in
Lesser Antillean creoles 106
4.3.2.4 Demonstrative pronouns in
Guyanese and Karipuna 107
4.3.2.5 Demonstrative pronouns in
Louisiana Creole 108
4.3.3 Possessive pronouns in the French creoles 110
4.3.3.1 Possessive pronouns in the IOC 110
4.3.3.2 Possessive pronouns in the Atlantic
French creoles 111
4.3.3.3 Possessive pronouns in Karipuna
and Lousiana Creole 112
4.3.4 Reflexive pronouns in the French creoles 115
4.3.4.1 Reflexive pronouns in the IOC 115
4.3.4.2 Reflexive pronouns in Haitian 119
4.3.4.3 Reflexive pronouns in Lesser
Antillean creoles 121
4.3.4.4 Reflexive pronouns in Guyanese
and Karipuna 122
4.3.4.5 Reflexive pronouns in Louisiana
Creole 123
4.3.4.6 Reflexive pronouns in Tayo 124
4.3.5 Impersonal/expletive pronouns in the French
creoles 126
4.3.5.1 Impersonal/expletive pronouns
in the IOC 126
4.3.5.2 Impersonal/expletive pronouns
in Haitian 127
4.3.5.3 Impersonal/expletive pronouns
in Lesser Antillean creoles 129
ix
Contents 4.3.5.4 Impersonal/expletive pronouns
in Guyanese and Karipuna 130
4.3.5.5 Impersonal/expletive pronouns
in Louisiana Creole 132
4.3.5.6 Impersonal/expletive pronouns in Tayo 134
4.4 Concluding remarks 135

5 Adjectives 136
5.0 Introduction 136
5.1 General 136
5.2 Adjectives in French 137
5.2.1 Adjectives as modifiers 137
5.2.1.1 Post-nominal adjectives 138
5.2.1.2 Pre-nominal adjectives 139
5.2.1.3 Pre- and post-nominal adjectives 139
5.2.2 Adjective order 140
5.2.3 Agreement between adjectives and nouns 141
5.2.4 Adjectives as heads and complements 143
5.2.5 Adjectives as nouns and adverbs 144
5.2.6 Comparative and superlative adjectives 145
5.3 Adjectives in the French creoles 145
5.3.1 Post-nominal adjectives 146
5.3.2 Pre-nominal adjectives 148
5.3.3 Pre- and post-nominal adjectives 151
5.3.4 Adjective order 152
5.3.5 Adjectives as heads and complements 153
5.3.6 Adjectives as nouns and adverbs 155
5.3.7 Comparative and superlative adjectives 156
5.3.8 Adjective reduplication 159
5.3.9 Adjective compounds 161
5.4 Concluding remarks 162

6 Adverbs 163
6.0 Introduction 163
6.1 General 163
6.2 Adverbs in French 165
6.3 Adverbs in the French creoles 166
6.3.1 Adverb order 173
6.3.2 Adverb reduplication 178
6.4 Concluding remarks 179
x

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7 Prepositions 180 Contents

7.0 Introduction 180


7.1 General 180
7.2 Prepositions in French 182
7.3 Prepositions in the French creoles 183
7.3.1 Absence of French grammatical prepositions 183
7.3.2 The semantics of prepositions 190
7.3.3 The syntax of prepositions 196
7.3.3.1 Preposition reanalysis 199
7.4 Concluding remarks 202

8 Verbs 203
8.0 Introduction 203
8.1 General 203
8.2 Verbs in French 205
8.2.1 French verb morphology 206
8.3 Verbs in the French creoles 211
8.3.1 Morphology of verbs 211
8.3.2 Typology of verbs in the French creoles 214
8.3.2.1 Transitive verbs 214
8.3.2.2 Ditransitive verbs 220
8.3.2.3 Unaccusative verbs 224
8.3.2.4 Unergative verbs 225
8.3.2.5 Ergative verbs 228
8.3.3 Complex-transitive verbs 229
8.3.4 Raising verbs 231
8.3.5 Control verbs 236
8.3.6 Existential verbs 240
8.3.7 Causative verbs 245
8.3.8 Serial verbs 248
8.4 Concluding remarks 252

9 Tense, mood, and aspect 254


9.0 Introduction 254
9.1 General 254
9.2 Tense, mood, and aspect in French 256
9.3 Tense, mood, and aspect in the French creoles 258
9.3.1 Tense in the French creoles 263
9.3.1.1 Present tense 263
xi
Contents 9.3.1.2 Past tense 269
9.3.1.3 Future tense 272
9.3.2 Aspect in the French creoles 275
9.3.3 Modality in the French creoles 284
9.4 Order of tense, modal, aspect markers 294
9.5 Concluding remarks 297

10 Negation 299
10.0 Introduction 299
10.1 General 299
10.2 Negative sentences in French 301
10.3 Negative sentences in the French creoles 305
10.4 Negative words in the French creoles 311
10.5 Concluding remarks 316

11 Clause structure and word order 318


11.0 Introduction 318
11.1 General 318
11.2 Typology of sentences in French 319
11.3 Typology of sentences in the French creoles 322
11.4 Word order in the French creoles 325
11.5 Structure of sentences in the French creoles 330
11.6 Subject-less and object-less sentences 333
11.7 Independent verb-less sentences 342
11.8 Concluding remarks 351

12 Clausal complements and complementisers 353


12.0 Introduction 353
12.1 General 353
12.2 Clausal complements and complementisers in French 355
12.3 Clausal complements and complementisers in
the French creoles 359
12.3.1 Clausal complements and complementisers
in the IOC 360
12.3.2 Clausal complements and complementisers
in Haitian 364
12.3.3 Clausal complements and complementisers
in Lesser Antillean creoles 367
12.3.4 Clausal complements and complementisers
in St. Lucian 369
xii

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12.3.5 Clausal complements and complementisers Contents
in Guyanese 371
12.3.6 Clausal complements and complementisers
in Karipuna 373
12.3.7 Clausal complements and complementisers
in Louisiana Creole 374
12.4 Small clause complements in the French creoles 377
12.5 Concluding remarks 381

13 Relative clauses 382


13.0 Introduction 382
13.1 General 382
13.2 Relative clauses in French 384
13.3 Relative clauses in the French creoles 387
13.3.1 Relative clauses in the IOC 387
13.3.2 Relative clauses in Haitian 391
13.3.3 Relative clauses in Martinican, Guadeloupean,
St. Lucian, and Guyanese 394
13.3.4 Relative clauses in Karipuna 398
13.3.5 Relative clauses in Louisiana Creole 400
13.3.6 Relative clauses in Tayo 403
13.4 Non-finite relative clauses in the French creoles 404
13.5 Free relatives in the French creoles 406
13.6 Concluding remarks 408

14 Questions 410
14.0 Introduction 410
14.1 General 410
14.2 Questions in French 412
14.3 Questions in the French creoles 415
14.3.1 Yes/no questions 415
14.3.2 Wh-questions 418
14.3.2.1 Direct wh-questions 418
14.3.2.2 Indirect wh-questions 431
14.3.2.3 Long wh-questions 433
14.3.2.4 Multiple wh-questions 435
14.3.2.5 Wh-in-situ questions 436
14.3.3 Verification tag questions 438
14.4 A note on questions in Tayo 439
14.5 Concluding remarks 441
xiii
Contents 15 Cleft, topic, and dislocated constructions 443
15.0 Introduction 443
15.1 General 443
15.2 Cleft, topic, and left dislocated constructions in French 445
15.3 Cleft, topic, and left dislocated constructions in the
French creoles 447
15.3.1 Cleft constructions 448
15.3.1.1 Cleft constructions in the IOC 448
15.3.1.2 Cleft constructions in Haitian 454
15.3.1.3 Cleft constructions in Martinican
and Guadeloupean 458
15.3.1.4 Cleft constructions in St. Lucian 460
15.3.1.5 Cleft constructions in Guyanese 461
15.3.1.6 Cleft constructions in Karipuna 463
15.3.1.7 Cleft constructions in Louisiana Creole 463
15.3.1.8 Summary 464
15.3.2 Topic constructions 466
15.3.2.1 Topic constructions in the French creoles 467
15.3.2.1.1 Topic constructions in
the IOC 467
15.3.2.1.2 Topic constructions
in Haitian 470
15.3.2.1.3 Topic constructions in
Martinican and
Guadeloupean 471
15.3.2.1.4 Topic constructions in
Karipuna 473
15.3.2.1.5 Topic constructions in
Louisiana Creole 474
15.3.3 Dislocated constructions in the French creoles 475
15.3.3.1 Left dislocated constructions
in the IOC 475
15.3.3.2 Left dislocated constructions in Haitian 478
15.3.3.3 Left dislocated constructions
in Martinican and Guadeloupean 478
15.3.3.4 Left dislocated constructions in
Guyanese and St. Lucian 481
15.3.3.5 Left dislocated constructions in
Karipuna and Louisiana Creole 482
15.4 Concluding remarks 484

xiv
Bibliography 486
Index 495

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Tables

2.1 Determiner-less (bare) nouns in English, French,


and the IOC 36
2.2 Derivational morphology in French 44
3.1 Agglutinated indefinite articles in Louisiana Creole
and the IOC 57
3.2 The demonstrative determiners in the French creoles 75
3.3 French attributive possessive determiner 79
3.4 The possessive determiner in the French creoles 79
4.1 French personal pronoun system 87
4.2 French absolute possessive pronouns 91
4.3 IOC personal pronoun system 93
4.4 Réunion Creole personal pronoun system 96
4.5 Haitian personal pronoun system 97
4.6 Lesser Antillean personal pronoun system 98
4.7 Guyanese personal pronoun system 100
4.8 Karipuna personal pronouns 101
4.9 Louisiana Creole personal pronoun system 102
4.10 Demonstrative pronouns in the French creoles 109
4.11 Possessive pronouns in the IOC 110
4.12 Absolute possessive pronouns in Réunion Creole 114
4.13 Possessive pronouns in the French creoles 115
4.14 Reflexive pronouns in the French creoles 125
4.15 Distribution of the impersonal, pleonastic/expletive
pronouns in the French creoles 134
5.1 Distribution of comparative markers in the French creoles 158
6.1 Types of adverbs in the IOC 168
6.2 Types of adverbs in Haitian Creole 169
6.3 Types of adverbs in Martinican 170
6.4 Types of adverbs in Karipuna 171
xv
Tables 6.5 Types of adverbs in Louisiana Creole 172
8.1 Existential verbs in the French creoles 244
8.2 Causative verbs in the French creoles 247
9.1 Inventory of tense, mood, and aspect markers
in the French creoles 283
9.2 Summary of modality markers in the French creoles 293
11.1 Referential, arbitrary, and expletive null subjects
and objects in the French creoles 342
14.1 Question words in the French creoles 424
15.1 Topic, cleft, and left dislocation in the French creoles 485

xvi

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Acknowledgements

I am immensely grateful to Paul Bennett for his detailed comments on the


chapters in this book. I would also like to thank him for his support, kind-
ness, and generosity over the last thirty-odd years.

I am also grateful to Alain Kihm from CNRS (Paris) for reading and com-
menting on some of the chapters.

I would also like to thank members of GDRI-Seepicla group (including Anne


Zribi-Hertz, Olivier Bonami, and Emmanuel Schang, amongst others) for
inviting me to be part of the European research group on French creoles. The
meetings I attended were very fruitful and inspiring and gave me plenty to
think about when it came to planning this book.

My thanks also to the University of Westminster for granting me research


leave for one semester to work on this book.

Finally, I thank my wife, Susan, for her support and my daughter, Emma, for
her support and help with proofreading the manuscript. Needless to say all
errors remain my own.

xvii
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