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Kant’s Dialectic
Kant’s Dialectic

B
jonathan bennett
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of


education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781316506073

© Cambridge University Press 1974

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception


and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1974


Reprinted 1977, 1981, 1986, 1990
Re-issued in a digitally printed version 2009
Cambridge Philosophy Classics edition 2016

Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data


Names: Bennett, Jonathan, 1930– author.
Title: Kant’s dialectic / Jonathan Bennett.
Description: New York : Cambridge University Press, 2016. | Originally published:
New York : Cambridge University Press, 1974 | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015048475| ISBN 9781107140578 (Hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781316506073 (Paperback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Kant, Immanuel, 1724-1804. | Dialectic.
Classification: LCC B2799.D47 B4 2016 | DDC 193–dc23 LC record available at
http://lccn.loc.gov/2015048475

ISBN 978-1-107-14057-8 Hardback


ISBN 978-1-316-50607-3 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy


of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Preface to this edition
karl ameriks

B
Jonathan Bennett's Kant's Dialectic is a landmark work in modern scholar-
ship. Its appearance in 1974 was one of the first expressions of a confluence
of three major trends that for fifty years now have played a major role in
philosophy. The first trend is the general re-emergence of metaphysics as a
source of positive attraction for the best and the brightest in the field.
A second surprising trend has been the renaissance of studies in the
history of philosophy. Whereas earlier, history and philosophy were often
contrasted as two different fields, a historical turn has now taken the form
of an avalanche of detailed studies of major modern figures (e.g., Bennett’s
Locke, Berkeley, Hume: Central Themes, 1971), as well as an incorporation of
historical considerations directly in the content of significant systematic
argumentation. A third trend is the rehabilitation of Kant’s philosophy,
and a reconsideration of all aspects of his system as relevant to contem-
porary thought. Along with P. F. Strawson and Wilfrid Sellars, Jonathan
Bennett was a prime analytic instigator of this movement already in the
1960s, with his first book on Kant, Kant’s Analytic (1966). This book made
Bennett famous as a practitioner of an approach that favours reconstruct-
ing a concise and interesting form of argument that seems to be present in
the text, and then not hesitating to mercilessly expose its apparent short-
comings, all for the purpose of leading to more satisfactory arguments on
the important topics under discussion. Kant’s Dialectic employs a some-
what similar approach but expresses a broader perspective, one enriched
with considerably more historical detail and reference to relevant prede-
cessors. After an extremely helpful review, in the first three chapters, of the
general themes of the ‘Analytic’, that is, the first major section of Kant’s
Critique of Pure Reason, Kant’s Dialectic launches into a path-breaking and
detailed treatment of the key metaphysical terms of the second major
section of the Critique: substantiality, simplicity, identity, infinity, limits,
divisibility, freedom, God, and reason. The mere fact that this part of
Kant’s text – which had for so long been ignored because of its seemingly
old-fashioned themes: rational psychology, cosmology, theology –
received such careful attention by Bennett was already a revolution in its
time. The content of the attention is even more remarkable, and the issues
ix
x preface to this edition

that are raised, about matters such as ‘quasi-memory’, relations, vacuum,


agency, and regulative principles, remain just as central in leading work in
current philosophy. Bennett’s discussion is especially valuable because of
his in-depth understanding of Leibniz’s relevance (see his new Cambridge
edition of Leibniz’s New Essays on Human Understanding). Among the
many highlights of the book, especially for advanced students, is the
discussion of ‘inflating the first paralogism’ (section 25), of the ‘weakening
move’ (section 45) in consideration of the antinomies of the infinite, and
the complexities of ‘real divisibility’ (section 54). There is no better way to
prepare oneself for a serious contemporary study of the central concepts of
Kant’s Dialectic than by working through every page of Bennett’s still
invaluable commentary.
Contents
B
Preface to this edition by karl ameriks page ix
Preface xi
System of references xiii

1 Introduction 1
1 Locating the subject-matter 1
2 The main topics 4
3 Background materials 5
2 Concepts and intuitions 9
4 The sensory/intellectual continuum 9
5 Trouble from the continuum 12
6 Kant’s breakthrough 16
7 Content v. activity 20
8 Concepts and judgments 23
9 Concept-empiricism 26
10 The theory of categories 30
11 Categories and ‘innate ideas’ 35
3 Substances and reality 40
12 Substances and aggregates 40
13 Cartesian substances 42
14 Leibniz on substances and reality 44
15 Leibniz on relations and reality 46
16 Kant on reality 49
17 Things in themselves 52
18 Imposition and things in themselves 54
19 Substances as sempiternal 56
20 The balance principle 60
21 Existence-changes and quantifiers 62
4 The substantiality of the soul 66
22 The Cartesian basis 66
23 The search for the thinking subject 69
24 The soul as substance 72

v
vi contents

25 Inflating the first paralogism 76


26 My death 78
5 The simplicity of the soul 82
27 The soul as simple 82
28 Mental fission 85
29 Mental disunity 87
30 Simplicity and immateriality 90
6 The identity of the soul 94
31 The third paralogism: blind alleys 94
32 Locating the third paralogism 96
33 Quasi-memory 98
34 Kant’s observer 101
35 Identity and substrata 104
36 Substrata: two sources 107
37 Substrata: four consequences 109
38 Strawson on the paralogisms 112
7 Infinity 115
39 The antinomies chapter 115
40 The limits of the world 118
41 Infinite tasks 122
42 The futurizing move 124
43 Infinite number 127
44 Numbers and natural numbers 130
45 The weakening move 133
46 Infinite and indefinite 139
8 Limits 145
47 Leibniz on space 145
48 Leibniz on vacuum 148
49 Why the world is not finite 154
50 Other arguments 157
51 Why the world did not begin 161
9 Divisibility 165
52 Simple substances 165
53 The divisibility of the extended 166
54 Real divisibility 170
55 Kant against atomism 172
56 Substance and substances 176
57 The supposed infinity problem 179
58 The divisibility of space 183
contents vii

10 Freedom 186
59 The third antinomy 186
60 From cosmology to humanity 189
61 The skeleton of a theory 192
62 A reconciliation? 195
63 Hume and Schlick 197
64 Restricting determinism 201
65 When does freedom occur? 203
66 Reactive attitudes 207
67 Kant and reactivity 211
68 Agency 213
69 Self-prediction 217
70 Kant and agency 221
71 Excuses for Kant’s theory 225
11 God 230
72 The Kant–Frege view 230
73 Existence and necessary existence 234
74 Why Malcolm’s argument fails 237
75 Aquinas’s third way 240
76 The fourth antinomy 242
77 The cosmological argument 246
78 The second step 250
79 Kant’s attack 253
80 The radical criticism 255
81 The argument from design 257
12 Reason 261
82 Inferences of reason 261
83 Ascending reason 263
84 Conditions 267
85 The source of dialectical error 270
86 Regulative principles 273
87 Are there any regulative principles? 277
88 Regulative and constitutive 279
89 The architectonic of the Dialectic 284
90 Reason and cosmology 287

Index 292
Preface
B
This book is a sequel to my Kant’s Analytic, but it does not presuppose
knowledge of the earlier work. It is the only English book-length commen-
tary on the Dialectic in Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason. It may be suggested
that one is one too many – that my book fills a welcome gap in the
literature – but I would dispute that. I have found that the Dialectic,
together with relevant materials from earlier philosophers, especially Des-
cartes and Leibniz, provides the basis for a satisfactory course of fifty-odd
classroom hours for graduate students and able undergraduates. Such a
course covers a useful amount of ‘history of philosophy’, guided through-
out by an interest in a varied but not too scattered set of philosophical
problems. Kant’s Dialectic might be a help, but what I am confidently
recommending is a different work – Kant’s Dialectic.
I continue to be, in the words of an unhappy reviewer of my earlier
work, ‘one of those commentators who are more interested in what Kant
ought to have thought than in what he actually did think’. Still, I try to
describe the Dialectic accurately and in some detail. This part of Kant’s
work is at once knottier and more interesting than is commonly supposed,
but the interest is lost if the knots are left tied, and so my philosophical
aims have driven me to endeavours which may count as scholarly.
The Dialectic is full of mistakes and inadequacies, or so I shall contend,
and of course this is consistent with its being a valuable contribution to
philosophy. Still, there are doubtless fewer mistakes than I allege: my
charge-list has gradually shortened as I have gained in understanding of
the work, and presumably it could be reduced further. But I have worked
for as long as I am prepared to, and I now offer what now seems to me to
be true. Anyway, when there is evidence of error the truth is better served
by an open accusation than by a respectful averting of one’s eyes, even in
cases where the charge of error can eventually be refuted.
Throughout, I use existing translations of non-English works, modifying
them where accuracy demands it. I follow Kemp Smith’s translation of the
Critique except for a few changes in the interests of clarity and a larger
number of corrections of mistranslations which are philosophically signifi-
cant. The most serious of the latter are noted as they arise. For help with
xi
xii preface

the German – my knowledge of which is very limited – I am indebted to


Lewis White Beck, Petra von Morstein and Margaret Jackson.
Kant’s Dialectic grew out of teaching, scattered through a decade, at
several universities. My largest block of indebtedness is to students at
the University of British Columbia, where I have taught courses on the
Dialectic in 1971–3. A few of them are named in the text, in acknowledg-
ment of particular contributions; but to many others – far more than
I could appropriately name in a Preface – I owe stimulation, encourage-
ment, criticism and guidance of a high order.
I have been glad of the help of Michael Beebe, who served as my
research assistant and gave me, among other things, most of what grasp
I have of the issue about absolute space. I am also grateful for help with
various parts of the book from my colleagues D. G. Brown, Howard
Jackson, Peter Remnant, Richard E. Robinson, Steven Savitt and John
Stewart; from J. J. Macintosh; and especially from M. J. Scott-Taggart.
Secretarial and other expenses were met by research grants – here
gratefully acknowledged – from the Canada Council and the University
of British Columbia.
Vancouver, B.C. J.F.B.
July 1973
System of references
B
To keep down the number of footnotes, some references are given in the
text. Also, sometimes references which could occupy several footnotes are
gathered into one. Each composite footnote refers forwards, and never
beyond the end of the paragraph.
Numerals occurring alone refer to page-numbers in the second edition
(‘B’) of the Critique of Pure Reason. Numerals immediately preceded by ‘A’
refer to pages in the first edition, and concern material omitted from B. The
following abbreviations are also used:

?
Bounds of Sense P. F. Strawson, The Bounds of Sense (London, 1966).
?
Commentary N. Kemp Smith, A Commentary to Kant’s Critique of Pure
Reason (London, 1918).
Essay Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
Gerhardt C. I. Gerhardt (ed.), Die philosophischen Schriften von G. W.
Leibniz (Berlin, 1875–90).
Haldane & Ross E. S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (eds.), Philosophical Works of
Descartes (Cambridge, 1911–12), Vol. II.
Kant’s Analytic J. Bennett, Kant’s Analytic (Cambridge, 1966).
Kant’s Arguments S. J. Al-Azm, The Origins of Kant’s Arguments in the Antinomies
(Oxford, 1972).
?
Leibniz–Arnauld H. T. Mason (ed.), The Leibniz–Arnauld Correspondence
(Manchester, 1967).
?
Leibniz–Clarke G. H. Alexander (ed.), The Leibniz–Clarke Correspondence
(Manchester, 1956).
For references to this work in Chapter 8, see that chapter’s
first footnote.
Locke, Berkeley, J. Bennett, Locke, Berkeley, Hume: Central Themes (Oxford,
Hume 1971).
Loemker L. E. Loemker (ed.), G. W. Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and
Letters, 2nd edn (Dordrecht, 1969).
?
Metaphysical Kant, Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (trans.
Foundations J. Ellington, Indianapolis, 1970).

xiii
xiv system of references

(cont.)
New Essays Leibniz, New Essays Concerning Human Understanding.
?
Practical Reason L. W. Beck, A Commentary on Kant’s Critique of Practical
Reason (Chicago, 1960).
Prolegomena Kant, Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysic that will be able to
present itself as a Science (trans. P. G. Lucas, Manchester, 1953).
?
I offer as a Select Bibliography of the most important readily available writings on matters
treated in this book: the Critique of Pure Reason, Descartes’ Meditations, and the starred items in
the above list.
1

Introduction

B
§1. Locating the subject-matter
The Critique of Pure Reason is arranged in a hierarchy of Parts and Books
and Divisions and Chapters and so on downwards. This arrangement
distorts more than it reflects the real bones and sinews in Kant’s work.
Let us face this matter squarely right away, and get it behind us.
On the surface, the Critique’s main division is into a long portion about
‘Elements’ and a shorter one about ‘Method’. The work’s claim to great-
ness lies wholly in the five-sixths of it which Kant calls ‘Transcendental
Doctrine of Elements’, and our present concerns are restricted to that. Its
surface structure is this:

Elements

Aesthetic Logic

Analytic Dialectic

Like many writers on Kant, I prefer to split the work into two roughly
equal parts, one containing the Aesthetic and Analytic, and the other
containing the Dialectic. The Aesthetic/Logic line is supposed to follow
a line between senses and intellect, but really does not. As for the division
within the Logic, Kant sees the Analytic as concerned with one intellectual
faculty (understanding) and the Dialectic with another (reason), and also
sees the Analytic as concerned with satisfactory intellectual operations and
the Dialectic with a certain kind of malfunction. (He apparently uses

1
2 introduction

‘dialectic(al)’ to mean ‘pertaining to error or illusion’, giving the word this


unusual sense for a reason which seems to be a joke.1) Both of those
rationales for the Analytic/Dialectic division rest on Kant’s theory that
the problems treated in the Dialectic result from malpractice by the faculty
of reason; and in my last chapter I shall argue for the rejection of that
theory.
Kant also has a better picture of the situation: the Aesthetic and Analytic
jointly present and defend a philosophical position which the Dialectic then
applies to certain difficulties and disputes. In fact, what is applied is not
minute doctrine but only a broad stream of thought, and even that is
disturbed by cross-currents; but still this second picture of the Critique’s
structure has merits, including that of drawing the main line in the right
place. That placing is endorsed by anyone who writes a book just on the
Aesthetic and Analytic. I now endorse it in a less usual manner, by writing
one just on the Dialectic.
On the surface, the Dialectic has four parts: an Introduction, two Books,
and an Appendix. Really, though, it is a sandwich, with a thick slice of
meat enclosed between two wafers of bread. The meat is the bulk of
Book II, comprising several hundred pages of nourishing philosophy
which are my main topic. The Introduction, Book I and the first three
paragraphs of Book II, occupying altogether about fifty of Kant’s pages,
present a theory about the meat of the sandwich; and the final Appendix,
running to about sixty pages, has more to do with that introductory
material than with the central part of the Dialectic.
The bread of the sandwich gives Kant’s theory about the nature and
origin of the problems treated in Book II. He blames them on our faculty of
reason, which he says is incurably prone to tempt us into certain kinds of
mistake. Tracing the Book II problems to this source is supposed to help us
solve them. It is also supposed to explain why Book II has just the contents
that it does have; for Kant, typically, claims to have a theoretical basis for
listing all the reason-induced errors:

I have found a way of guarding against all those errors which have
hitherto set reason, in its non-empirical employment, at variance with
itself. I have not evaded its questions by pleading the insufficiency of
human reason. On the contrary, I have specified these questions exhaust-
ively, according to principles; and after locating the point at which,

1 85–6; see also Commentary, p. 441.


1. locating the subject-matter 3

through misunderstanding, reason comes into conflict with itself, I have


solved them to its complete satisfaction.2

The boast is made even more resounding by Kant’s view that all meta-
physical problems are generated by reason-induced error, so that ‘There is
not a single metaphysical problem which has not been solved, or for the
solution of which the key at least has not been supplied’ in the Dialectic.
These extravagant claims are hollow. Kant’s theory of reason, as well as
being false, has little bearing on the real contents of Book II and is often
positively inconsistent with them; and so it cannot help to solve the
problems in Book II. Nor does it seriously explain why there are just such
and such metaphysical problems: that is just Kant’s undignified attempt to
derive his choice of topics from the structure of human reason rather than
the philosophical preoccupations then current in the German universities.3
In a remark I have quoted, Kant speaks of troubles that beset reason ‘in
its non-empirical employment’. In the title Critique of Pure Reason, the word
‘pure’ means ‘non-empirically employed’, and so his title means ‘a critique
of. . .the faculty of reason in general, in respect of all knowledge after
which it may strive independently of all experience’ (A xii). This reflects one
aspect of the theory of reason, namely the view that the Dialectic’s prob-
lems are supposed to arise from reason’s having somehow cut itself loose
from sense-experience. The troubles which Kant treats in the Dialectic do
indeed arise partly from a failure to root one’s thoughts in one’s experi-
ence; but this has nothing to do with reason, and so I cannot take seriously
the title of Kant’s great masterpiece. Considered as a critique of pure
reason, the Critique of Pure Reason is negligible.4
I postpone discussing Kant’s theory of reason until my last chapter, but
really there is no satisfactory placing for it. Because some of the termin-
ology of the theory of reason occurs in Book II of the Dialectic, readers
who are new to the work might find it helpful to read §§82–5 in my
Reason chapter before moving into Chapter 7 and subsequent chapters
of this book. Only the final two sections really need to be left until
everything else has been read.

2 A xii–xiii. Next quotation: A xiii.


3 See W. H. Walsh, ‘Kant’, in P. Edwards (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (New York and
London, 1967); F. C. Copleston, A History of Philosophy (London, 1960), Vol. 6, p. 106.
4 Kant also wrote a Critique of Practical Reason, but he has no pure/practical contrast. In
those two titles, ‘pure’ is short for ‘pure theoretical’, and ‘practical’ includes ‘pure prac-
tical’, and so theoretical questions about what is the case are being contrasted with
practical questions about what ought to be done. See Practical Reason, pp. 9–10, n. 21.
4 introduction

§2. The main topics


Book II of the Dialectic has three chapters. Their topics are, respectively, (1)
the self or soul or thinking subject, (2) the cosmos, or the world in space
and time, and (3) God. Kant pretends that he can also associate them,
respectively, with three forms of proposition with which reason may be
busy when it goes astray: (1) subject–predicate, (2) if–then, (3) either–or.
Anticipating my final two sections, I should say right away that Kant does
not integrally connect conditionality with the cosmos, or disjunction with
the divine!
The chapter about the soul – about the I of the Cartesian ‘I think’ – is
called ‘The Paralogisms of Pure Reason’. A paralogism is a certain kind of
invalid argument – a kind which Kant thinks is the typical outcome of
reason’s going astray when thinking about the soul. This claim is not
helpfully true, and Kant fortunately does not press it very hard. He does
set up as targets some brief arguments which are perhaps paralogisms, but
they are quite inadequate to express the material which Kant really wants
to discuss and criticize. I shall use the word ‘paralogisms’ to refer to the
lines of thought – the dense tangles of confusion and error – which are
Kant’s real topic in this chapter, and not to the jejune syllogisms which
purport to embody them.
The Paralogisms chapter is the only part of the Dialectic that Kant
thoroughly rewrote for the second edition (B). I shall attend mostly to
the version in the first edition (A), which divides the material into four – a
division which gets only a passing nod in B. Although this four-way split
is not a total success, it is worth more attention than it usually gets. The
fourth paralogism, incidentally, is not directly about the soul; but its
presence in this chapter will be explained.
The chapter about the cosmos is called ‘The Antinomy of Pure Reason’.
In Kant’s usage, an ‘antinomy’ is a pair of conflicting propositions each of
which is supported by seemingly conclusive arguments. In this chapter he
treats four of them, which are supposed to embody the four ways in which
pure reason can be ‘set at variance with itself’ in thinking about the
cosmos. That is theory-of-reason stuff; as is Kant’s view that there is
something inherently antinomal about the cosmological problems he dis-
cusses in this chapter (433). In fact, although those problems can be forced
into an antinomal form, there is no necessity about this; it is just a matter of
expository convenience or, sometimes, inconvenience.
The first two antinomies are genuinely cosmological, in that they have
to do with the contents of space and time. The third is about freedom: can
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