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Kant’s Dialectic
Kant’s Dialectic
B
jonathan bennett
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781316506073
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
B
Jonathan Bennett's Kant's Dialectic is a landmark work in modern scholar-
ship. Its appearance in 1974 was one of the first expressions of a confluence
of three major trends that for fifty years now have played a major role in
philosophy. The first trend is the general re-emergence of metaphysics as a
source of positive attraction for the best and the brightest in the field.
A second surprising trend has been the renaissance of studies in the
history of philosophy. Whereas earlier, history and philosophy were often
contrasted as two different fields, a historical turn has now taken the form
of an avalanche of detailed studies of major modern figures (e.g., Bennett’s
Locke, Berkeley, Hume: Central Themes, 1971), as well as an incorporation of
historical considerations directly in the content of significant systematic
argumentation. A third trend is the rehabilitation of Kant’s philosophy,
and a reconsideration of all aspects of his system as relevant to contem-
porary thought. Along with P. F. Strawson and Wilfrid Sellars, Jonathan
Bennett was a prime analytic instigator of this movement already in the
1960s, with his first book on Kant, Kant’s Analytic (1966). This book made
Bennett famous as a practitioner of an approach that favours reconstruct-
ing a concise and interesting form of argument that seems to be present in
the text, and then not hesitating to mercilessly expose its apparent short-
comings, all for the purpose of leading to more satisfactory arguments on
the important topics under discussion. Kant’s Dialectic employs a some-
what similar approach but expresses a broader perspective, one enriched
with considerably more historical detail and reference to relevant prede-
cessors. After an extremely helpful review, in the first three chapters, of the
general themes of the ‘Analytic’, that is, the first major section of Kant’s
Critique of Pure Reason, Kant’s Dialectic launches into a path-breaking and
detailed treatment of the key metaphysical terms of the second major
section of the Critique: substantiality, simplicity, identity, infinity, limits,
divisibility, freedom, God, and reason. The mere fact that this part of
Kant’s text – which had for so long been ignored because of its seemingly
old-fashioned themes: rational psychology, cosmology, theology –
received such careful attention by Bennett was already a revolution in its
time. The content of the attention is even more remarkable, and the issues
ix
x preface to this edition
1 Introduction 1
1 Locating the subject-matter 1
2 The main topics 4
3 Background materials 5
2 Concepts and intuitions 9
4 The sensory/intellectual continuum 9
5 Trouble from the continuum 12
6 Kant’s breakthrough 16
7 Content v. activity 20
8 Concepts and judgments 23
9 Concept-empiricism 26
10 The theory of categories 30
11 Categories and ‘innate ideas’ 35
3 Substances and reality 40
12 Substances and aggregates 40
13 Cartesian substances 42
14 Leibniz on substances and reality 44
15 Leibniz on relations and reality 46
16 Kant on reality 49
17 Things in themselves 52
18 Imposition and things in themselves 54
19 Substances as sempiternal 56
20 The balance principle 60
21 Existence-changes and quantifiers 62
4 The substantiality of the soul 66
22 The Cartesian basis 66
23 The search for the thinking subject 69
24 The soul as substance 72
v
vi contents
10 Freedom 186
59 The third antinomy 186
60 From cosmology to humanity 189
61 The skeleton of a theory 192
62 A reconciliation? 195
63 Hume and Schlick 197
64 Restricting determinism 201
65 When does freedom occur? 203
66 Reactive attitudes 207
67 Kant and reactivity 211
68 Agency 213
69 Self-prediction 217
70 Kant and agency 221
71 Excuses for Kant’s theory 225
11 God 230
72 The Kant–Frege view 230
73 Existence and necessary existence 234
74 Why Malcolm’s argument fails 237
75 Aquinas’s third way 240
76 The fourth antinomy 242
77 The cosmological argument 246
78 The second step 250
79 Kant’s attack 253
80 The radical criticism 255
81 The argument from design 257
12 Reason 261
82 Inferences of reason 261
83 Ascending reason 263
84 Conditions 267
85 The source of dialectical error 270
86 Regulative principles 273
87 Are there any regulative principles? 277
88 Regulative and constitutive 279
89 The architectonic of the Dialectic 284
90 Reason and cosmology 287
Index 292
Preface
B
This book is a sequel to my Kant’s Analytic, but it does not presuppose
knowledge of the earlier work. It is the only English book-length commen-
tary on the Dialectic in Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason. It may be suggested
that one is one too many – that my book fills a welcome gap in the
literature – but I would dispute that. I have found that the Dialectic,
together with relevant materials from earlier philosophers, especially Des-
cartes and Leibniz, provides the basis for a satisfactory course of fifty-odd
classroom hours for graduate students and able undergraduates. Such a
course covers a useful amount of ‘history of philosophy’, guided through-
out by an interest in a varied but not too scattered set of philosophical
problems. Kant’s Dialectic might be a help, but what I am confidently
recommending is a different work – Kant’s Dialectic.
I continue to be, in the words of an unhappy reviewer of my earlier
work, ‘one of those commentators who are more interested in what Kant
ought to have thought than in what he actually did think’. Still, I try to
describe the Dialectic accurately and in some detail. This part of Kant’s
work is at once knottier and more interesting than is commonly supposed,
but the interest is lost if the knots are left tied, and so my philosophical
aims have driven me to endeavours which may count as scholarly.
The Dialectic is full of mistakes and inadequacies, or so I shall contend,
and of course this is consistent with its being a valuable contribution to
philosophy. Still, there are doubtless fewer mistakes than I allege: my
charge-list has gradually shortened as I have gained in understanding of
the work, and presumably it could be reduced further. But I have worked
for as long as I am prepared to, and I now offer what now seems to me to
be true. Anyway, when there is evidence of error the truth is better served
by an open accusation than by a respectful averting of one’s eyes, even in
cases where the charge of error can eventually be refuted.
Throughout, I use existing translations of non-English works, modifying
them where accuracy demands it. I follow Kemp Smith’s translation of the
Critique except for a few changes in the interests of clarity and a larger
number of corrections of mistranslations which are philosophically signifi-
cant. The most serious of the latter are noted as they arise. For help with
xi
xii preface
?
Bounds of Sense P. F. Strawson, The Bounds of Sense (London, 1966).
?
Commentary N. Kemp Smith, A Commentary to Kant’s Critique of Pure
Reason (London, 1918).
Essay Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
Gerhardt C. I. Gerhardt (ed.), Die philosophischen Schriften von G. W.
Leibniz (Berlin, 1875–90).
Haldane & Ross E. S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (eds.), Philosophical Works of
Descartes (Cambridge, 1911–12), Vol. II.
Kant’s Analytic J. Bennett, Kant’s Analytic (Cambridge, 1966).
Kant’s Arguments S. J. Al-Azm, The Origins of Kant’s Arguments in the Antinomies
(Oxford, 1972).
?
Leibniz–Arnauld H. T. Mason (ed.), The Leibniz–Arnauld Correspondence
(Manchester, 1967).
?
Leibniz–Clarke G. H. Alexander (ed.), The Leibniz–Clarke Correspondence
(Manchester, 1956).
For references to this work in Chapter 8, see that chapter’s
first footnote.
Locke, Berkeley, J. Bennett, Locke, Berkeley, Hume: Central Themes (Oxford,
Hume 1971).
Loemker L. E. Loemker (ed.), G. W. Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and
Letters, 2nd edn (Dordrecht, 1969).
?
Metaphysical Kant, Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (trans.
Foundations J. Ellington, Indianapolis, 1970).
xiii
xiv system of references
(cont.)
New Essays Leibniz, New Essays Concerning Human Understanding.
?
Practical Reason L. W. Beck, A Commentary on Kant’s Critique of Practical
Reason (Chicago, 1960).
Prolegomena Kant, Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysic that will be able to
present itself as a Science (trans. P. G. Lucas, Manchester, 1953).
?
I offer as a Select Bibliography of the most important readily available writings on matters
treated in this book: the Critique of Pure Reason, Descartes’ Meditations, and the starred items in
the above list.
1
Introduction
B
§1. Locating the subject-matter
The Critique of Pure Reason is arranged in a hierarchy of Parts and Books
and Divisions and Chapters and so on downwards. This arrangement
distorts more than it reflects the real bones and sinews in Kant’s work.
Let us face this matter squarely right away, and get it behind us.
On the surface, the Critique’s main division is into a long portion about
‘Elements’ and a shorter one about ‘Method’. The work’s claim to great-
ness lies wholly in the five-sixths of it which Kant calls ‘Transcendental
Doctrine of Elements’, and our present concerns are restricted to that. Its
surface structure is this:
Elements
Aesthetic Logic
Analytic Dialectic
Like many writers on Kant, I prefer to split the work into two roughly
equal parts, one containing the Aesthetic and Analytic, and the other
containing the Dialectic. The Aesthetic/Logic line is supposed to follow
a line between senses and intellect, but really does not. As for the division
within the Logic, Kant sees the Analytic as concerned with one intellectual
faculty (understanding) and the Dialectic with another (reason), and also
sees the Analytic as concerned with satisfactory intellectual operations and
the Dialectic with a certain kind of malfunction. (He apparently uses
1
2 introduction
I have found a way of guarding against all those errors which have
hitherto set reason, in its non-empirical employment, at variance with
itself. I have not evaded its questions by pleading the insufficiency of
human reason. On the contrary, I have specified these questions exhaust-
ively, according to principles; and after locating the point at which,
The boast is made even more resounding by Kant’s view that all meta-
physical problems are generated by reason-induced error, so that ‘There is
not a single metaphysical problem which has not been solved, or for the
solution of which the key at least has not been supplied’ in the Dialectic.
These extravagant claims are hollow. Kant’s theory of reason, as well as
being false, has little bearing on the real contents of Book II and is often
positively inconsistent with them; and so it cannot help to solve the
problems in Book II. Nor does it seriously explain why there are just such
and such metaphysical problems: that is just Kant’s undignified attempt to
derive his choice of topics from the structure of human reason rather than
the philosophical preoccupations then current in the German universities.3
In a remark I have quoted, Kant speaks of troubles that beset reason ‘in
its non-empirical employment’. In the title Critique of Pure Reason, the word
‘pure’ means ‘non-empirically employed’, and so his title means ‘a critique
of. . .the faculty of reason in general, in respect of all knowledge after
which it may strive independently of all experience’ (A xii). This reflects one
aspect of the theory of reason, namely the view that the Dialectic’s prob-
lems are supposed to arise from reason’s having somehow cut itself loose
from sense-experience. The troubles which Kant treats in the Dialectic do
indeed arise partly from a failure to root one’s thoughts in one’s experi-
ence; but this has nothing to do with reason, and so I cannot take seriously
the title of Kant’s great masterpiece. Considered as a critique of pure
reason, the Critique of Pure Reason is negligible.4
I postpone discussing Kant’s theory of reason until my last chapter, but
really there is no satisfactory placing for it. Because some of the termin-
ology of the theory of reason occurs in Book II of the Dialectic, readers
who are new to the work might find it helpful to read §§82–5 in my
Reason chapter before moving into Chapter 7 and subsequent chapters
of this book. Only the final two sections really need to be left until
everything else has been read.
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