Unit-I

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or
more computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications
network that allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between
networked computing devices is established using either cable media or wireless
media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as

printers is called computer network. This interconnection among computers
facilitates information sharing among them. Computers may connect to each other
by either wired or wireless media.

Classification of Computer Networks

Computer networks are classified based on various factors.They includes:

 Geographical span
 Inter-connectivity
 Administration
 Architecture
Geographical Span
Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories:

 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices,.

Ranging not more than few meters.
 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to
connect all floors.
 It may be spanned across a whole city.
 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
 It may be one network covering whole world.
Inter-Connectivity
Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some
fashion. By connectedness we mean either logically , physically , or both ways.

 Every single device can be connected to every other device on network,

making the network mesh.

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  All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically
disconnected, created bus like structure.
 Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating linear
structure.
 All devices connected together with a single device, creating star like
structure.
 All devices connected arbitrarily using all previous ways to connect each
other, resulting in a hybrid structure.
Administration
From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be private network which
belongs a single autonomous system and cannot be accessed outside its physical
or logical domain.A network can be public which is accessed by all.

Network Architecture
Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as Client-
Server,peer-to-peer or hybrid, depending upon its architecture.

 There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client,
requests the Server to serve requests.Server takes and processes request on
behalf of Clients.
 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion.
They both reside at the same level and called peers.
 There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the
above types.
Network Applications
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network.They provide
numerous advantages:

 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices

 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences

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  Parallel computing
 Instant messaging
Personal Area Network
A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a
user. This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices.
PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer
keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV
remotes.

For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may

contain up to 8 devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.

LAN (Local Area Network)

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single
administrative system is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN).
Usually,LAN covers an organization’ offices, schools, colleges or universities.
Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as much as
16 million.

LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users.The
resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable
among computers.

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LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may
contains local servers serving file storage and other locally shared applications. It
mostly operates on private IP addresses and does not involve heavy routing. LAN
works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.

LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely

employed LAN technology and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen.

LAN can be wired,wireless, or in both forms at once.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as
cable TV network. It can be in the form of Ethernet,Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).

Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its
users to expand their Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an
organization to connect all of its offices in a city.

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Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in
between Local Area Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for
LANs to WANs or internet.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

As the name suggests,the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which
may span across provinces and even a whole country. Generally,
telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network. These networks provide
connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are equipped with very high speed
backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.

WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed
by multiple administration.

Internetwork
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the
largest network in existence on this planet.The internet hugely connects all WANs
and it can have connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP
protocol suite and uses IP as its addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is
widely implemented using IPv4. Because of shortage of address spaces, it is
gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.

Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information
worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio and video streaming etc. At
huge level, internet works on Client-Server model.

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Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various
continents, fibers are laid under sea known to us as submarine communication
cable.

Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked pages
and is accessible by client software known as Web Browsers. When a user requests
a page using some web browser located on some Web Server anywhere in the
world, the Web Server responds with the proper HTML page. The communication
delay is very low.

Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life. Some of
them are:

 Web sites
 E-mail
 Instant Messaging
 Blogging
 Social Media
 Marketing
 Networking
 Resource Sharing
 Audio and Video Streaming
OSI Model
Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. OSI
model is established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has
seven layers:

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 o In the 1980s, there was a lot of chaos and a tremendous increase in
the number and size of networks. Different companies were using
different technologies made by different vendors and it became
difficult for networks that used different specifications and
implementations to communicate with each other.
o In response, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
developed a model that allowed vendors to sell and create networking
devices that would be compatible and operate with other networks.
This model is known as the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model.
o The OSI Reference Model is broken down into seven layers. Every
process that occurs during network communication can be associated
with a layer of the model.
o When two computers communicate with one another, one layer on one
computer exchanges information with that same layer on the second
computer.

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 Layer 7 – The Application Layer:
o The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the user. It provides
network services to the user’s software applications.
 The most popular example would be HTTP (hypertext transfer
protocol). HTTP takes request from your browser and converts
them to a format that can be sent over the Internet to request
Web pages.
 It also formats and sends a Web server’s response back to your
browser.

 Layer 6 – The Presentation Layer:

o The presentation layer ensures that the information that the
application layer of one computer sends out can be read by the
application layer of another computer.
 The best example would probably be data encryption and
decryption. Any encrypted (a.k.a. scrambled) data sent on one
computer must be able to be decrypted (unscrambled) by the
second computer.

 Layer 5 – The Session Layer:

o The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates sessions
between communicating computers. The term session refers to a
connection for ongoing data exchange between two parties.
 Among the session layer’s functions are establishing and
keeping alive the communications link for the duration of the
session, keeping the communication secure, synchronizing the
dialogue between two nodes, determining whether
communications have been cut off and if so, figuring out
whether to restart or terminate communication.

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 Layer 4 – The Transport Layer:
o The transport layer segments data from the sending computer and
reassembles the data on the receiving computer. In other words, it
ensures that the data is transferred from computer A to computer B
reliably, in the correct sequence, and without errors.
 All networks have an MTU (maximum transmission unit) which
is the largest data unit it will carry.
 The transport layer performs segmentation which breaks chunks
of data received from the session layer into several smaller units
whose size matches the MTU.

 Layer 3 – The Network Layer:

o The network layer is responsible for network addressing and deciding
the best route from the sender to the receiver.
 It uses network addresses which may be assigned through the
OS.

 Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer:

o The data link layer divides data received from the Network layer into a
format that be transmitted by the Physical layer.
 Because the data is begin prepared for physical transmission, it
adds the physical address of the receiving computer. The
physical address is more commonly known as the MAC address.
 Beyond the physical address, it does some error checking as
well.
 Layer 1 – The Physical Layer:
o The physical layer accepts data from the data link layer and generates
voltage as to transmit signals.
 It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between the sender and receiver.

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  It handles such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of
voltage changes, rates, maximum transmission distances, etc.

 Encapsulation:
o As data moves downward from Layer 7 to Layer 1, necessary
information is added. Encapsulation wraps data with necessary
information before it is sent on the network.
o The part of the data that contains useful information is payload.
o As you sit at the computer and use a software application to send
data, an application header is added to the data before it is moved to
the next layer.
o The presentation layer adds a presentation header before moving it to
the session layer. The session layer adds a session header before
moving it to the transport layer.
o When it reaches the transport layer, a transport header is added that
includes sequencing information. The data unit is now known as a
segment.
o When it reaches the network layer, a network header is added. The
network header includes routing and addressing information. The data
is now known as a packet.
o When it reaches the data link layer, the data link header and data link
trailer are added. The data is now known as a frame.
o At the physical layer, the data is ready for transmission.
o Once the data reaches its destination, the receiving computer strips
away (a.k.a. de-encapsulates) the extra data until it is left with
nothing but the payload.

Internet Model
Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This defines
Internet Model which contains four layered architecture. OSI Model is general
communication model but Internet Model is what the internet uses for all its

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communication.The internet is independent of its underlying network architecture
so is its Model. This model has the following layers:

The TCP/IP model differs slightly from the seven-layer Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) networking model designed after it, which defines how
applications can communicate over a network.

TCP/IP model layers

TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which include specific
protocols.

 The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange.

Its protocols include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).

 The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications

across the network. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides
flow control, multiplexing and reliability. The transport protocols include TCP and
User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes used instead of TCP for
special purposes.

 The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and
connects independent networks to transport the packets across network

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 boundaries. The network layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting.

 The physical layer consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the
network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The
protocols in this layer include Ethernet for local area networks (LANs) and the
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).

Advantages of TCP/IP

TCP/IP is nonproprietary and, as a result, is not controlled by any single company.

Therefore, the internet protocol suite can be modified easily. It is compatible with
all operating systems, so it can communicate with any other system. The internet
protocol suite is also compatible with all types of computer hardware and networks.

How the OSI model and TCP/IP model differ

The TCP/IP model doesn't map cleanly to the OSI model because it was developed
in the 1970s, before the OSI model was created in the 1980s. TCP/IP was designed
to solve a specific set of problems, not to function as a general description for all
network communications.

 IP corresponds to a subset of OSI Layer 3, the network layer.

 TCP corresponds to OSI Layer 4 (transport) and some functions of Layer 5

(session).

 TCP/IP makes no assumptions about what happens above the level of a network
session -- part of OSI Layer 5 -- while OSI defines several more layers of
standardized functions.

 TCP/IP makes no prescriptions as to the link layers below IP, while OSI specifies
two layers.

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 If an application needs functions not found in TCP/IP, the application has to
supply them. In the OSI model, it is assumed an application will never
implement any functionality belonging in any defined layer, and because
interfaces between layers abstract many details, it may not be able to anyway.

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Signals
When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first converted into
electromagnetic signals. Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital
such as file on the disk.Bothanalog and digital data can be represented in digital or
analog signals.

 Digital Signals

Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage

pulses. Digital signals are used within the circuitry of a computer system.

 Analog Signals

Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by

continuous electromagnetic waves.

Transmission Impairment
When signals travel through the medium they tend to deteriorate. This may have
many reasons as given:

 Attenuation

For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be
sufficiently strong.When the signal passes through the medium, it tends to
get weaker.As it covers distance, it loses strength.

 Dispersion

As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The
amount of dispersion depends upon the frequency used.

 Delay distortion

Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the
signal speed and frequency do not match, there are possibilities that signal
reaches destination in arbitrary fashion. In digital media, this is very critical
that some bits reach earlier than the previously sent ones.

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  Noise

Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be

Noise in signal, which may distort the actual information being carried.
Noise can be characterized in one of the following class:

o Thermal Noise

Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may

introduce noise in the media. Up to a certain level, thermal noise is
unavoidable.

o Intermodulation

When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can

cause noise in the medium. Intermodulation noise occurs if two
different frequencies are sharing a medium and one of them has
excessive strength or the component itself is not functioning properly,
then the resultant frequency may not be delivered as expected.

o Crosstalk

This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the
media. This is because signal in one medium affects the signal of
second medium.

o Impulse

This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as

lightening, electricity, short-circuit, or faulty components. Digital data
is mostly affected by this sort of noise.

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Digital-to-Digital Conversion
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done
in two ways, line coding and block coding. For all communications, line coding is
necessary whereas block coding is optional.

Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding.
Digital data is found in binary format.It is represented (stored) internally as series
of 1s and 0s.

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Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data.There are
three types of line coding schemes available:

Uni-polar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case,
to represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is
transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because there is no rest
condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.

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Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values.
Polar encodings is available in four types:

 Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)

It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally,

positive voltage represents 1 and negative value represents 0. It is also NRZ
because there is no rest condition.

NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas

NRZ-I changes voltage when a 1 is encountered.

 Return to Zero (RZ)

Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and
when the next bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are
not synchronized.

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 RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative
voltage to represent 0 and zero voltage for none. Signals change during bits
not between bits.

 Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided
into two halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and changes phase when
a different bit is encountered.

 Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transit at
the middle of the bit but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.

Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero
voltage represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and
negative voltages.

Block Coding
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For
example, in even-parity, one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the
frame even. This way the original number of bits is increased. It is called Block
Coding.

Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB.Means, m-bit block is

substituted with n-bit block where n > m. Block coding involves three steps:

 Division,
 Substitution
 Combination.

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After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are
treated is analog data. To transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need
analog to digital conversion.

Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data
is discrete. To convert analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM).

PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into digital
form. It involves three steps:

 Sampling
 Quantization
 Encoding.
Sampling

The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is
the rate at which analog signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the
sampling rate must be at least two times of the highest frequency of the signal.

Quantization

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Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern
shows the amplitude of the analog signal at that instance. The quantization is done
between the maximum amplitude value and the minimum amplitude value.
Quantization is approximation of the instantaneous analog value.

Encoding

In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

Transmission Modes
The transmission mode decides how data is transmitted between two
computers.The binary data in the form of 1s and 0s can be sent in two different
modes: Parallel and Serial.

Parallel Transmission

The binary bits are organized in-to groups of fixed length. Both sender and
receiver are connected in parallel with the equal number of data lines. Both
computers distinguish between high order and low order data lines. The sender
sends all the bits at once on all lines.Because the data lines are equal to the
number of bits in a group or data frame, a complete group of bits (data frame) is

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sent in one go. Advantage of Parallel transmission is high speed and disadvantage
is the cost of wires, as it is equal to the number of bits sent in parallel.

Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a queue manner. Serial
transmission requires only one communication channel.

Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission

It is named so because there’is no importance of timing. Data-bits have specific
pattern and they help receiver recognize the start and end data bits.For example,
a 0 is prefixed on every data byte and one or more 1s are added at the end.

Two continuous data-frames (bytes) may have a gap between them.

Synchronous Serial Transmission

Timing in synchronous transmission has importance as there is no mechanism
followed to recognize start and end data bits.There is no pattern or prefix/suffix
method. Data bits are sent in burst mode without maintaining gap between bytes
(8-bits). Single burst of data bits may contain a number of bytes. Therefore,
timing becomes very important.

It is up to the receiver to recognize and separate bits into bytes.The advantage of

synchronous transmission is high speed, and it has no overhead of extra header
and footer bits as in asynchronous transmission.

To send the digital data over an analog media, it needs to be converted into
analogsignal.There can be two cases according to data formatting.

Bandpass:The filters are used to filter and pass frequencies of interest. A

bandpass is a band of frequencies which can pass the filter.

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Low-pass: Low-pass is a filter that passes low frequencies signals.

When digital data is converted into a bandpass analog signal, it is called digital-to-
analog conversion. When low-pass analog signal is converted into bandpass analog
signal, it is called analog-to-analog conversion.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first
converted into analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.

An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. There

are three kinds of digital-to-analog conversions:

 Amplitude Shift Keying

In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is

modified to reflect binary data.

When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held; otherwise it is

set to 0. Both frequency and phase remain same as in the original carrier
signal.

 Frequency Shift Keying

In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog carrier signal is

modified to reflect binary data.

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 This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of them, for example
f1, is chosen to represent binary digit 1 and the other one is used to
represent binary digit 0. Both amplitude and phase of the carrier wave are
kept intact.

 Phase Shift Keying

In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered
to reflect the binary data.

When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is

altered. Amplitude and frequency of the original carrier signal is kept intact.

 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

QPSK alters the phase to reflect two binary digits at once. This is done in
two different phases. The main stream of binary data is divided equally into

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 two sub-streams. The serial data is converted in to parallel in both sub-
streams and then each stream is converted to digital signal using NRZ
technique. Later, both the digital signals are merged together.

Analog-to-Analog Conversion
Analog signals are modified to represent analog data. This conversion is also
known as Analog Modulation. Analog modulation is required when bandpass is
used. Analog to analog conversion can be done in three ways:

 Amplitude Modulation

In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified to reflect

the analog data.

Amplitude modulation is implemented by means of a multiplier. The

amplitude of modulating signal (analog data) is multiplied by the amplitude
of carrier frequency, which then reflects analog data.

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 The frequency and phase of carrier signal remain unchanged.

 Frequency Modulation

In this modulation technique, the frequency of the carrier signal is modified

to reflect the change in the voltage levels of the modulating signal (analog
data).

The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal are not altered.

 Phase Modulation

In the modulation technique, the phase of carrier signal is modulated in

order to reflect the change in voltage (amplitude) of analog data signal.

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 Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in
Phase modulation frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. Frequency
of carrier is signal is changed (made dense and sparse) to reflect voltage
change in the amplitude of modulating signal.

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 Transmission media

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