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Reilly_cpi_cb_PaulsonDD.qxd 1/16/2015 8:37 AM Page 1

Bills of Mortality: Disease and Destiny in Plague Literature from Early Modern to
Postmodern Times explores the dynamic between the fact of plague and the 223 Patrick Reilly
constructs of destiny deadly disease generates in literary texts ranging from Daniel
Defoe’s A Journal of the Plague Year to Tony Kushner’s Angels in America. The volume

Patrick Reilly
BILLS OF
is of interest to readers in both literary and scientific, especially medical, fields. In
addition, it serves as an accessible introduction to plague literature and to the arena
in which it has evolved since ancient times. To undergraduate and graduate students,
Bills of Mortality affords an opportunity for scholarly engagement in a topic no less
timely now than it was when plague struck Milan in 1629 or ravaged Venice in 1912
or felled Thebes in antiquity.

“To study plagues is to understand narratives. With Bills of Mortality, Patrick Reilly
illuminates literary encounters with pestilence over a period of three centuries.
Brilliantly informative, this book illustrates how plague, metaphor for the
MORTALITY
incomprehensible, is ceaselessly renewed when we tell stories about why some die
and others do not.”—Philip Alcabes, Professor of Public Health, Adelphi University;
Author of Dread: How Fear and Fantasy Have Fueled Epidemics from the Black Death Disease and Destiny in

BILLS OF MORTALITY
to Avian Flu
Plague Literature from Early
Modern to Postmodern Times
“How can the aesthetic representation of the unspeakable be done? How will our
own present day’s plagues (physical, religious, political, etc.) be told in the future?
Confronting this reality involves seeing how this was done in history and, in so doing,
helps us understand the healing process. Patrick Reilly’s Bills of Mortality is a
panoramic survey and an outstanding analysis of such foremost plague narratives
from ancient times to our present day, impeccably researched and written, to help
us understand why and how these representations are of vital importance.”
—Norbert Sclippa, Professor of French, College of Charleston, South Carolina

“A thoroughly focused discussion of the nature of plague literature, Bills of Mortality

concentrates on pivotal texts and the significant role that the aesthetics of metaphor
plays in interpreting their meaning. Patrick Reilly presents a convincing analysis that
reaches beyond the fictional and into the social, cultural, and political background
of each work he discusses.”—A. Nicholas Fargnoli, Dean of Humanities, Molloy
College; President, The James Joyce Society

PATRICK REILLY (Ph.D., City University of New York) teaches in the

English Department at Baruch College, CUNY. His articles have
appeared in Journal for Camus Studies, The James Joyce Quarterly,
Lire Sade, and Italica.
Peter Lang

Currents in Comparative
WWW.PETERLANG.COM
Romance Languages and Literatures
BILLS OF MORTALITY
 Currents in Comparative Romance
Languages and Literatures

Tamara Alvarez-Detrell and Michael G. Paulson

General Editors

Vol. 223

This book is a volume in a Peter Lang monograph series.

Every volume is peer reviewed and meets
the highest quality standards for content and production.

PETER LANG
New York  Bern  Frankfurt  Berlin
Brussels  Vienna  Oxford  Warsaw
 Patrick Reilly

BILLS OF MORTALITY
Disease and Destiny in Plague Literature
from Early Modern to Postmodern Times

PETER LANG
New York  Bern  Frankfurt  Berlin
Brussels  Vienna  Oxford  Warsaw
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Reilly, Patrick.
Bills of Mortality: Disease and Destiny in Plague Literature
from Early Modern to Postmodern Times / Patrick Reilly.
pages cm. — (Currents in Comparative Romance Languages and Literatures; Vol. 223)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Diseases in literature. 2. Plague in literature. 3. Epidemics in literature. I. Title.
PN56.D56R45 809’.933561—dc23 2013043407
ISBN 978-1-4331-2422-8 (hardcover)
ISBN 978-1-4539-1282-9 (e-book)
ISSN 0893-5963

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek.

Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the “Deutsche
Nationalbibliografie”; detailed bibliographic data are available
on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de/.

Cover image: Pietro Perugino [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

© 2015 Patrick Reilly

Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York
29 Broadway, 18th floor, New York, NY 10006
www.peterlang.com

All rights reserved.

Reprint or reproduction, even partially, in all forms such as microfilm,
xerography, microfiche, microcard, and offset strictly prohibited.
 For Dean—and all the others

I would not have reached the end of this book’s journey without the help and
­support of my friends and of the Comparative Literature and English Departments
and library staff at Graduate Center CUNY. To Peter Skutches I am grateful for
more than his editorial eye.
 T able of Contents

Permissions ix

Chapter One: Authoring Destiny 1

Chapter Two: Out of Sortes. A Journal of the Plague Year 11
Chapter Three: The Fourth Horseman. The Betrothed 41
Chapter Four: Dead on Arrival. Death in Venice 71
Chapter Five: The Doctor’s Dilemma. The Plague 104
Chapter Six: How to Survive a Plague. Angels in America 134
Chapter Seven: The Conversation 171

Works Cited 185

Index 193
 Permissions

Excerpts from “Death in Venice” from Death in Venice and Other Stories by Thomas
Mann, translation copyright © 1988 by David Luke. Used by permission of
Bantam Books, an imprint of Random House, a division of Random House LLC.
All rights reserved.
Excerpts from “Death in Venice” by Thomas Mann (Trans. David Luke). Published
by Martin Secker and Warburg (UK). Reprinted by permission of Random House
Group Limited.
Excerpts from The Plague by Albert Camus and translated by Stuart Gilbert,
translation copyright © 1948 by Stuart Gilbert, copyright renewed 1975 by Stuart
Gilbert. Used by permission of Albert A. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, a
division of Random House LLC. All rights reserved.
Excerpts from Angels in America, Part One: Millennium Approaches. Copyright ©
1992, 1993, 2003, 2013 by Tony Kushner. And from Angels in America, Part Two:
Perestroika. Copyright © 1992, 1993, 1996, 2003, 2013 by Tony Kushner. By per-
mission of author.
 chapter one

Authoring Destiny

We are not meant to live thus, Sir. Flaming swords, I say my Philip presses into me,
swords that are not words; but they are neither flaming swords nor are they words. It
is like a contagion, saying one thing always for another (like a contagion, I say; barely
did I hold myself back from saying, a plague of rats, for rats are everywhere about us
these days).
—J. M. C oetzee , E lizabeth C ostello

Death blackly stalks the streets of seventeenth-century London in Daniel Defoe’s

A Journal of the Plague Year. A mysterious retrovirus is epidemically felling young,
mostly gay men in the 1980s New York of Tony Kushner’s play Angels in America,
and a plague ravages the ancient city of Thebes in the Oedipus Tyrannus of
Sophocles. For centuries—for millennia, at least since the myth of the Plague
at Aegina—the subject of plague has been generating an aesthetic that distinctly
characterizes its manifold texts. While plague texts, no matter how various and
culturally particular may be their elements of character and plot, repeatedly share
certain identifiable metaphysical themes and mythical motifs, they are more fun-
damentally wed to each other by their aesthetic response to the overwhelming
fact of depredatory pestilence. To classify such texts as apocalyptic is already to
be approaching them in terms of their aesthetic, as the designation is not only a
way of defining plague texts but also, and more importantly to an exploration of
their aesthetic, a way of perceiving plague itself. For the descriptive “apocalyptic”
2 | bills of mor talit y : disease and destiny in p l ag ue l i t e r at u r e

also aggrandizes. It invests plagues with significance, as do the plague texts them-
selves: Angry gods, for example, must be appeased; a savior-scapegoat must die if
the kingdom is to be delivered from the pestilence on the land. The bald facts of
disease and death become aesthetically a matter of design and destiny.
As it was in ancient Greece, aesthetics is here defined as a process that orig-
inates in perception. For it is in the perception of a subject’s reality, its whatness,
that the aesthetic process of translation begins. The whatness of the plague lies in
the fact of it. But to see the fact as terrifying, catastrophic, apocalyptic, or redemp-
tive is immediately to see—or to perceive—the subject in a particular way, and
more particularly (and perhaps more palliatively), in an aesthetic way.
The aesthetic eye processes reality. In that process language translates the sub-
ject into a text that shows how the subject has been perceived. In the act of percep-
tion one is already a step away from the thing itself, and in the act of translation
language furthers the distance from the whatness of the subject as it makes of the
fact a (plague) text. That text then presents not what the subject plague was or is;
rather, it represents how the plague has been intellectually perceived and aesthet-
ically conceived. Language ascribes meaning to fact; the plague text invests the
contagion with significance.
To put it another way, the vehicle for the aesthetic response to the perceived
fact of plague is language. In that sense, language at once is metaphor and generates
metaphor. Common to many plague texts are particular metaphorical topoi—
telltale signs, angels and demons, omens and wonders, prophets, scapegoats, puri-
fication rites, destiny—by which an incomprehensible, terrifying event is authored
at least into aesthetic sense. Whether that sense is lodged as well in moral philos-
ophy, natural history, astrology, or theology, it is nonetheless, in the end as in its
origin, aesthetic. Likewise, whether a topos like destiny is being viewed with hope
or fear, with realistic resolve or romantic fancy; whether the language shaping it is
poetic or scientific, metaphysical or matter-of-factual—it is being dressed in met-
aphor. Essentially metaphoric, too, is the aesthetic process that makes of plague’s
fact a film, novella, treatise, fable, drama, or fantasia; that process is the vehicle that
is at the same time and constantly both escaping and confronting its tenor, and in
the product of that process, in the text, it is continually making its own meaning.
Moreover, the meaning in the text is not equivalent to the meaning of the text,
which accrues meaning beyond the text. The plague text as text is not only aes-
thetically metaphoric in that its language has translated the tenor of plague’s fact
into fiction, history, science, metaphysics, or myth. Often, and quite commonly in
plague literature, this aesthetically metaphoric text reads also as metaphor, in that
the plague as it is represented in the text is also a vehicle by which to expose or ex-
plain a plague of another, usually political, social, cultural, or moral sort. Thus the
epidemic that besets Oran in Camus’s The Plague might be read as the Nazi regime
 au t h o ri n g d e st i ny | 3

that beleaguered France in the early 1940s; the French, in fact, referred to their
Nazi occupiers epithetically (and metaphorically) as “la peste brune.” Similarly, in
Tony Kushner’s Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes, it is not just
the homophobic power monger Roy Cohn who is sick and dying of AIDS, it is
every right-wing conservative thing he stands for: the be-Reaganited nation itself.
As Belize, his African-American gay male nurse, puts it, “You come with me to
[Cohn’s] room 1013 over at the hospital, I’ll show you America. Terminal, crazy,
and mean.”

How a text means, then, enlarges the significance of what a text—and any par-
ticular topos within the text—means. Destiny, for instance, figures prominently in
plague literature, wherein it engenders a lexicon—“chance,” “providence,” “preor-
dination,” “fortune,” “fate,” “luck,” “contingency,” “random,” “doom”—to produce
texts that variously delineate, in the matter of destiny, the metaphysics of plague.
Thus, as the language of destiny occasions texts that attribute to plague a religious
or philosophical dimension, aesthetics becomes metaphysics, in that the aesthetic
expresses itself as metaphysics. And the metaphysical text is thus metaphoric; it at
once conceals and reveals not what plague is but how the subject, plague, has been
perceived and reconceived in terms of the topos destiny. Aesthetically, the topos
becomes a construct, which may be poetically or scientifically defined.
To the poetic mind, generally, the compass of plague defies comprehensibil-
ity; in its devastating enormity it lies beyond human ken. So it is that the po-
etic response to plague enlists language as often to blame higher powers for the
contagion’s ravage as to appeal to them for abatement and surcease. Either way,
the poetic mind often finds in destiny, if not deliverance, at least an explanation:
However painfully and mysteriously, the plague is somehow fulfilling God’s divine
plan. The scientific mind, while it may reject such providential views, nonetheless
embraces destiny, although it is empirically (and aesthetically) perceived as being
circumstantial or conditional: Plague is an effect with a discernible cause, be it
rats’ fleas or HIV. Whether scientifically formulated or poetically ratiocinated,
destiny in either case gives more significance to the plague narrative than it does
to plague’s fact.
Destiny, then, serves the plague narrative as an aesthetic construct. However
destiny may operate in reality, if it operates at all, and however significant it may
or may not be as an article of faith or a source of succor in the historical reality
of ancient Greece or postmodern America, in the plays of Sophocles and Tony
Kushner, destiny, in aesthetic fact, lends sense to the progress of awesome and aw-
ful events. Explicitly or in a literary network of cultural assumption and allusion,
some concept of destiny, both as a condition and as an agent, is likely to inform
4 | bills of mor talit y : disease and destiny in p l ag ue l i t e r at u r e

texts that treat plague or apocalyptic occurrences like famine and war (which fre-
quently precede plague).
Destiny as a condition suggests that beyond the circumstances of terrible days
lies some divine plan that escapes the eye of man; beyond the perceived chaos of
temporal human existence, for instance, lies a celestial and eternal order to which
all things tend, what the ancient Greeks called moira. By such condition, then, an
individual’s destiny, be it bountiful in good fortune or tragic in the extreme, serves
some other, divine end, which may be fixed in the stars. As an agent, destiny works
within the variable, earthly, temporal world of humans to bring them to their
destined ends and ultimately to their final one. The Fates spin, and then they snip.
An agent itself, fate also has its agents. They might be named circumstance,
chance, and consequence. In Sophocles’s Oedipus Tyrannus, circumstance places
Oedipus, by adoption the prince of Corinth, at a crossroads where by chance he
encounters Laius, the king of Thebes, who is traveling to Delphi. A quarrel ensues,
the consequences of which leave Laius dead. Pride and willfulness on the part of
both the Corinthian prince and the Theban king, the son and the father, result in a
tragic end. The cause, however, is only apparent; for it was prophesied years before
that a male child born to Laius and Jocasta would kill his father and marry his
mother. At the crossroads cause and effect, contingency, become the agents to des-
tiny—again, as Oedipus has once more survived the plot of his parents, who at his
birth strove to thwart destiny by infanticide. Continually assuming control of his
destiny, Oedipus unwittingly continues to fulfill his destiny. For all his determina-
tion not to commit patricide and incest, he has now committed patricide and will
commit incest. He seals his own fate at the same time that he seeks to escape it.
“You are the plague,” the blind seer Tiresias tells Oedipus. The plague that
ravishes the land—the plague that Laius had sought to end by his visit to the oracle
at Delphi—continues unabated, all the more so because the king’s murder has not
yet been avenged. The gods are angry; disorder is declining into chaos. Only when
Oedipus succeeds in solving the murder, and thus becomes the victim of his own
vengeance, will the plague of civil war and the pestilence itself—founded upon a
plague, Thebes suffers affliction upon affliction—begin to be lifted. Tyrannus will
become scapegoat, and the land will be purified by his blood. The chain of events
might be explained by contingency, but it is destiny that has had its way.

Written in the stars, as destiny was long believed to be, for centuries its read-
ing and interpretation lay within the province of astrology, which strove to de-
fine correspondences between heavenly activity and earthly events and to iden-
tify the influences of the stars, moon, comets, and planets upon human pursuits
in every sphere: as above, so below. Man’s concept of his star-directed destiny
 au t h o ri n g d e st i ny | 5

changed very little from Pythagoras to Alexander Pope, notes E. M. W. Tillyard in

The Elizabethan World Picture. Not until the seventeenth century, when Bacon’s
New Science, for one, disposing of the syllogistic givens of scholasticism, embraced
empiricism and established a scientific method based upon inductive reasoning,
does astrology begin to lose its sway.
In 1722 Daniel Defoe published A Journal of the Plague Year. Supposedly an
eyewitness account of the 1665 plague in London (Defoe would have been five
at the time) and reportorially detailed to realistic effect, the journal nonetheless
links the outbreak of the contagion to the strange appearance of “a blazing star or
comet” among other disturbing phenomena that occurred in the heavens months
before the plague struck. It signals the approach of “God’s judgments,” and the
plague itself represents God’s scourge upon the city. Destiny would appear to be
as medieval in its design—and as an aesthetic construct—as it had been when
the Black Death ravaged Western Europe in the fourteenth century, except that
the fulfillment of any such divine design proves to be, for the author of the
journal, a more earthly matter that brings to his empirical account the logic of
destiny borne in the science of natural philosophy.
Alessandro Manzoni’s The Betrothed (I Promessi Sposi) is similarly set in a
plague year, that of 1629, in Milan, and while medical practitioners issue dire warn-
ings about the dangers of contagion, the more poetically minded, like the scholar
Don Ferrante, see futility in any human attempt to halt or alter the progress of the
pestilence. For how can man alter a cause that is astrologically lodged in the heav-
ens, in the “fatal conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter,” in the “influences of the
stars”? For Don Ferrante, who may well be familiar with Plato’s cosmology in the
Timaeus as well as in The Republic (Book X, which treats the Myth of Er), destiny
is a construct by which one can explain what one cannot know and can attribute
to some fixed divine plan all the painful vicissitudes of human existence. However,
although the events in The Betrothed take place in 1627–30, the novel was written
by Manzoni in the 1820s and ’30s, during the turbulent decades preceding the
Risorgimento. Destiny as it is constructed by Don Ferrante in the time of the novel’s
narrative and destiny as it is conceived by Manzoni’s narrator at the time of the
novel’s composition, two centuries later, stand at variance, and the latter (with the
advantage of historical hindsight) exposes the shortcomings in the scholastic views
of the former. Don Ferrante places man in the hands of destiny; Manzoni’s narra-
tor places destiny in the hands of man—or, more precisely, he places the responsi-
bility for one’s destiny in the human will, in the morality of one’s choices in the face
of Milan’s plague, social and political as well as actual, and of God’s providence.
If destiny as an aesthetic construct of condition in Sophoclean tragedy em-
ploys as its agents contingency, chance, and circumstance in bringing the hero to
his necessary fate, increasingly in plague literature after the seventeenth century,
6 | bills of mor talit y : disease and destiny in p l ag ue l i t e r at u r e

that construct begins to be internalized by the protagonist, who pursues oppor-

tunity as it arises in order to fulfill what he himself conceives to be his destiny.
Increasingly, too, the accomplishment of that destiny is linked to the protagonist’s
will, wherein ambitions, wishes, dreams, pride, and desires supersede providential
necessity. If the heroic capabilities of such figures match the human will that drives
them, they may indeed fulfill what they deem to be their destiny—unless, or until,
their sense of destiny fails them. Certainly it fails Aschenbach in Thomas Mann’s
novella Death in Venice (Der Tod in Venedig).
Gustav von Aschenbach has not wanted for success. A celebrated author, he
has been honored by the academy and exalted for his knowledge, wisdom, and
dignity, although his idealism is in itself passionless. Still, Aschenbach is neither
unaware of his shortcomings nor content with his successes. Yet he is not so much
plagued by his sense of a destiny that has gone unfulfilled even as it has brought
him illustriously to middle age than he is shadowed by a sense of doom. We first
encounter him at a cemetery in Munich, where, like an omen, a mysterious stranger
appears; he is standing above “two apocalyptic beasts”—presaging pestilence and
death—that monumentally guard the steps of a chapel. And at the end of the tale
Aschenbach will die in Venice, of plague, but not before he has pursued what he
conceives, or tragically misconceives, as his destiny. It takes the shape of a beauti-
ful androgynous youth named Tadzio. Smitten by the boy, obsessed, Aschenbach
refuses to leave the city and thereby forgoes the opportunity to escape the plague,
the cholera morbus, which will claim his body as ineluctably as the plague that
has long since invaded his psyche. Plague will deliver him, in his delirium, to a
stygian abyss—“Aschenbach” might be translated as “ashy brook”—where, lost in
Apollonian fantasies of Beauty though he has hopelessly been, he will be feverishly
beset by Dionysian desires he has long repressed and can no longer resist. They
will lead him again to Tadzio, radiantly imagined, an apotheosis of beauty wrought
out of sensual longing (as if the boy’s pallor and teeth did not betray in him, too,
the presence of disease); and Tadzio, like “the pale and lovely soul-summoner”
Hermes at his Stygian station, will lead Aschenbach to the empty sea. The agent
of Aschenbach’s destiny will prove to be an angel of death.
More comically, but with no less metaphysical significance, an angel appears in
the fever dreams of Prior Walter in Tony Kushner’s masterly play Angels in America ;
she crashes through the ceiling of Prior’s bedroom in fact. For all her bluster and
(only apparent) wreckage, however, she too is the product of a plague-ridden man’s
aesthetic imagination. She is also something of a joke. For even in delirium Prior
Walter has a sense of humor as well as a sense of destiny, a destiny that has been
played out in the history of the Walter family at least since the eleventh century
when the Walters moved from France to England, and from plague to plague,
and more plague, down to the eighteenth century when they fled the Old World
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