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 Real Analysis

Real Analysis: An Undergraduate Problem Book for Mathematicians, Applied

Scientists, and Engineers is a classical Real Analysis/Calculus problem book.
This topic has been a compulsory subject for every undergraduate studying
mathematics or engineering for a very long time. This volume contains a huge
number of engaging problems and solutions, as well as detailed explanations
of how to achieve these solutions. This latter quality is something that many
problem books lack, and it is hoped that this feature will be useful to students and
instructors alike.
Features
• Hundreds of problems and solutions
•  Can be used as a stand-alone problem book, or in conjunction with the author’s
textbook, Real Analysis: An Undergraduate Textbook for Mathematicians,
Applied Scientists, and Engineers, ISBN 9781032481487
•  Perfect resource for undergraduate students studying a first course in Calculus
or Real Analysis
•  Contains explanatory figures, detailed techniques, tricks, hints, and “recipes”
on how to proceed once we have a calculus problem in front of us.
 Real Analysis
An Undergraduate Problem Book
for Mathematicians, Applied
Scientists, and Engineers

Gustavo da Silva Araújo

State University of Paraíba, Brazil
Luis Bernal González
Universidad de Sevilla, Spain
José L. Gámez Merino
Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
María E. Martínez Gómez
Rey Juan Carlos University, Spain
Gustavo A. Muñoz Fernández
Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
Daniel L. Rodríguez Vidanes
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Juan B. Seoane Sepúlveda
Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
Designed cover image: ShutterStock Images

First edition published 2024

by CRC Press
2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431

and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2024 Gustavo da Silva Araújo, Gustavo A. Muñoz Fernández, María E. Martínez Gómez, Luis Ber-
nal González, José L. Gámez Merino,Juan B. Seoane Sepúlveda, Daniel L. Rodríguez Vidanes

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and pub-
lisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced
in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not
been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so
we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information stor-
age or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com
or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.
co.uk

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-1-032-50461-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-51026-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-40074-5 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003400745

Typeset in CMR10 font

by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

Publisher’s note: This book has been prepared from camera-ready copy provided by the authors.
Contents

Preface vii

Author Bios ix

1 The Field of Real Numbers 1

2 The Field of Complex Numbers 85

3 Sequences of Real Numbers. Convergence 110

4 Continuous Functions 177

5 Differentiable Functions 223

6 Riemann Integral 283

7 Numerical Series 418

8 Power Series. Function Sequences and Series 475

Bibliography 519

v
Preface

This text does not intend to be a theoretical guide with exercises, but a
complement and help to all the classical undergraduate Calculus textbooks by
providing a carefully chosen collection of exercises that, with detailed worked
out solutions, would certainly enlighten the student in their understanding of
the subject of one variable Calculus.
Certainly the topic of Real Analysis is a very vast and wide one. The study
of Calculus dates back, at least, to the time of the Greek mathematician and
philosopher Eudoxus of Cnidus (IV century BC), who rigorously developed
Antiphon’s method of exhaustion (a precursor to the integral calculus) using
(without developing it rigorously) the idea of limit in order to approximate
areas of irregular geometric figures. However, the modern formalization of
Mathematical Analysis did not come until two millennia later, when Descartes
and Fermat developed Analytic Geometry in the middle of the XVII century,
the subsequent development of Infinitesimal Calculus by Leibniz and Newton
in the XVIII century and (already in the XIX century) the work of Cauchy in
which he established formalism and rigor in Calculus as we know it, essentially,
today and through the sequences bearing his name.
More authors should be named in these aforementioned time periods together
with their respective seminal contributions to the area. We cannot forget the
Bernoulli family (XVIII century) to whom, among many other results, we owe
the famous L’Hôpital’s rule. Nor can we overlook the enormous contributions
of Euler and his magical numerical series, in addition to, among many other
contributions, having established the current notation we nowadays use to
represent a function, or the number e. Furthermore, it is a must to remember
Bolzano and Weierstrass (XIX century) and, in particular, the famous theorem
that bears their names. This theory could have not been developed without
the help of Cantor (XIX–XX centuries), his theory of the infinity and his
famous ternary set. Darboux and Riemann (XIX–XX centuries) also deserve
a special place, since the version of the integral that we study here is due to
them (although there are other, more advanced versions of the integral, but
they are not studied in an initial course in real analysis, such as, for example,
the Lebesgue integral). In the XX century, Mathematical Analysis diversified
into more varied and essential topics, such as the study of function spaces
(functional analysis), complex analysis, measure theory or operator theory,
among others.

vii
viii Preface

This problem book is divided into eight main chapters or topics, that are those
typically included in any first year Calculus textbook, namely:

(1.) The Field of Real Numbers.

(2.) The Field of Complex Numbers.
(3.) Sequences of Real Numbers. Convergence.
(4.) Continuous Functions.
(5.) Differentiability.
(6.) Riemann Integrability.
(7.) Numerical Series.
(8.) Power Series. Function Sequences and Series.

Of course, this book serves as the perfect guide to students who wish to have
a thorough understanding of the theory involved in Calculus by means of
a very rich and extended selection of problems (easy ones and “less easy”
ones!) including the typical tricks or recipes that usually appear in Calculus
problems and less conventional techniques that are useful in order to tackle
them successfully. At the same time it is also an excellent text for instructors
to find ways to illustrate the theory they deliver in class. Most of the problems
appearing in this text are extracted from the proposed problem list of the book
entitled “Real Analysis: An Undergraduate Textbook for Mathematicians,
Applied Scientists, and Engineers” [6] currently being revised by the time this
present text is in press. Although, by now, there are quite an amount of Real
Analysis (or Calculus) textbooks published around the World, we believe that
a problem book with detailed worked out solutions (and not just a mere list
of exercises with the corresponding list of answers to them) is something that,
in our experience as instructors, a student will always need. It would neither
be the first time nor the last that a mathematics instructor, during class, is
asked the question “where can I find the solutions to all the exercises?” coming
from a student. It does not matter the college we are in or the country we
live in, students always want to have the answers to the proposed exercises
and we believe that this book covers the most important type of questions
that any Calculus student could encounter while pursuing a degree involving
mathematics.
Gustavo da Silva Araújo
Luis Bernal González
José Luis Gámez Merino
Marı́a Elena Martı́nez Gómez
Gustavo Adolfo Muñoz Fernández
Daniel Luis Rodrı́guez Vidanes,
Juan Benigno Seoane Sepúlveda
Author Bios

Gustavo da Silva Araújo is an Associate Professor at the State Univer-

sity of Paraı́ba, Brazil. His primary research interests encompass real and
complex analysis, the geometry of Banach spaces, operator theory, series and
summability, mathematical inequalities, and lineability. He has authored sev-
eral papers in these areas, and also serves as reviewer for many mathematics
journals. He earned his Ph.D. in mathematics from the Federal University of
Paraı́ba in 2016.

Luis Bernal González graduated in 1980 from the Universidad de Sevilla,

Spain. He obtained his Ph.D. in Mathematics from the same university in
1984. Bernal has been a permanent faculty member at Sevilla since 1980 and
was promoted to Associate Professor in 1987, and to Full Professor in 2010.
He was an invited speaker at the International Congress on Hypercyclicity
and Chaos for Linear Operators and Semigroups in Valencia (Spain) in 2009.
His main interests are Complex Analysis, Operator Theory and, lately, the
interdisciplinary subject of Lineability. Bernal has authored or co-authored
more than 130 papers in these areas, many of them concerning the structure of
the sets of the mathematical objects discovered. He has been plenary lecturer
at many international conferences.

José L. Gámez Merino graduated from Universidad Complutense de

Madrid (Spain) in 1989 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Mathematics from
the same university in 1997. He is an expert in Real Analysis. Gámez is, cur-
rently, an Associate Professor at the Department of Mathematical Analysis
and Applied Mathematics at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid.

Marı́a E. Martı́nez Gómez is currently an Assistant Professor at the De-

partment of Applied Mathematics, Materials Science and Engineering and
Electronic Technology, Rey Juan Carlos University (Spain). In 2017, she grad-
uated in Mathematics from the Complutense University of Madrid (UCM) and
defended her Ph.D. Thesis in 2021. Her areas of expertise include Real and
Convex Analysis and Set Theory.

ix
x Author Bios

Gustavo A. Muñoz Fernández graduated in Mathematics from Universi-

dad Complutense in 1994 and in Physics from UNED in 2001. He earned his
Ph.D. in Mathematics from Universidad Complutense in 1999. Muñoz is cur-
rently the Academic Secretary of the Interdisciplinary Mathematics Institute
(IMI) and a Full Professor at the Department of Mathematical Analysis and
Applied Mathematics at Universidad Complutense. Muñoz has co-authored
more than 70 publications including a research book and several textbooks.
The scientific interests of Muñoz are related, mainly, to geometry of Banach
spaces, polynomials in normed spaces and algebraic genericity (lineability).

Daniel L. Rodrı́guez Vidanes is currently an Assistant Professor within the

Department of Applied Mathematics to Industrial Engineering at Universidad
Politécnica de Madrid (UPM). He defended his Ph.D. thesis on 2023 under the
supervision of professors Juan B. Seoane Sepúlveda and Gustavo A. Muñoz
Fernández from UCM (Spain), alongside Krzysztof C. Ciesielski from West
Virginia University (WVU, USA). His academic journey includes over 20 sci-
entific international publications. Additionally, he also co-authored a research
book on the geometry of spaces of polynomials. Daniel’s scholarly pursuits are
deeply rooted in various domains within mathematics. His research interests
span the analysis of real functions, functional analysis, geometry of Banach
spaces, spaces of polynomials, and lineability.

Juan B. Seoane Sepúlveda earned his first Ph.D. at the Universidad

de Cádiz (Spain) jointly with Universität Karlsruhe (Germany) in 2005. He
earned his second Ph.D. at Kent State University (Kent, Ohio, USA) in 2006.
His main interests include Real and Complex Analysis, Operator Theory,
Number Theory, Banach Space Geometry, and Lineability. He has co-authored
about 200 papers up to this day, together with several books. Seoane is cur-
rently a Full Professor at Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain), where
he also holds the position of Director of the Master’s Studies in Advanced
Mathematics. He has delivered invited lectures at many international confer-
ences and research institutes around the world.
Chapter 1
The Field of Real Numbers

Exercise 1.1. Decide if each one of the following statements is true or

false:
30
X 30
X 20
X 20
X
j4 = j4, 2 + j2 = 2 + j2,


(i) (iii)
j=1 j=0 j=1 j=1

100 100 100

!2
X X X
2 = 200, 2
(ii) (iv) k = k .
j=0 k=1 k=1

Solution to Exercise 1.1.

(i). True.
(ii). False.
(iii). False.
(iv). False.

Exercise 1.2. Express with summation notation:

1 1 1 1
(i) + + + ··· + ,
1·2 2·3 3·4 10 · 11
(ii) 1 + 40 + 900 + 16 000 + 250 000 + 3 600 000,
(iii) 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + 5x4 ,

(iv) a0 x4 + a1 x3 + a2 x2 + a3 x + a4 ,
(v) a5 − a4 b + a3 b2 − a2 b3 + ab4 − b5 ,
(vi) a5 + a4 b + a3 b2 + a2 b3 + ab4 + b5 .

DOI: 10.1201/9781003400745-1 1
2 Real Analysis

Solution to Exercise 1.2.

If the expression of any of your summations does not match the ones below,
do not panic!, there are many ways to do it. The important thing is that the
expression is equivalent to that of the statement.
10
1 1 1 1 X 1
(i). + + + ··· + = .
1·2 2·3 3·4 10 · 11 j=1 j(j + 1)
5
X
(ii). 1 + 40 + 900 + 16 000 + 250 000 + 3 600 000 = (k + 1)2 10k .
k=0
5
X
(iii). 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + 5x4 = (−1)i+1 ixi−1 .
i=1
4
X
(iv). a0 x4 + a1 x3 + a2 x2 + a3 x + a4 = an x4−n .
n=0
X5
(v). a5 − a4 b + a3 b2 − a2 b3 + ab4 − b5 = (−1)m a5−m bm .
m=0
X5
(vi). a5 + a4 b + a3 b2 + a2 b3 + ab4 + b5 = a5−l bl .
l=0

1 1 1
Exercise 1.3. Knowing that = − for each j ∈ N, find
j(j + 1) j j+1
n
X 1
the sum of where n ∈ N.
j=1
j(j + 1)

Solution to Exercise 1.3.

1 1 1
We know j(j+1) = j − j+1 for each j ∈ N, hence

n n  
X 1 X 1 1
= −
j=1
j(j + 1) j=1 j j+1
       
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1− + − + ··· + − + − ,
2 2 3 n−1 n n n+1

where in the last summation observe that the terms are canceling consecutively
(this is known as a telescopic sum), and the only terms that do not cancel are
 The Field of Real Numbers 3
1
1 and − n+1 . That is,
n
X 1 1
=1− .
j=1
j(j + 1) n+1

Another, although a little bit more elaborate, way to do it is as follows:

1
X 1 1
For n = 1, we have = . Therefore, assume that n ∈ N is such
j=1
j(j + 1) 2
that n ≥ 2, thus
n n  
X 1 X 1 1
= −
j=1
j(j + 1) j=1 j j+1
n n
X 1 1 X
= −
j=1
j j=1 j + 1
 
n n−1
X 1 X 1 1 
=1+ − + . (1.1)
j=2
j j=1
j+1 n+1

In the first summation of (1.1) we apply the change of variable k = j − 1 (we

leave the second summation as it is, but we simply write k instead of j since
the value of the sum does not change), and we obtain
n n−1 n−1
X 1 X 1 X 1 1 1
=1+ − − =1− .
j=1
j(j + 1) k+1 k+1 n+1 n+1
k=1 k=1

Exercise 1.4. Find an explicit expression for the following sums (n ∈

N):
n
X
(i) (2j − 1). Hint: Use the equality j 2 − (j − 1)2 = 2j − 1 where
j=1
j ∈ N.
n
X
(ii) j. Hint: Recall (i).
j=1

n
X
(iii) Use a similar strategy to calculate j2.
j=1
4 Real Analysis

Solution to Exercise 1.4.

(i). First, observe that for each j ∈ N,
j 2 − (j − 1)2 = j 2 − j 2 + 2j − 1 = 2j − 1.
Then, it is enough to notice that the summation
n
X
j 2 − (j − 1)2 =


j=1

= 1 + (4 − 1) + (9 − 4) + · · · + (n − 1)2 − (n − 2)2 + n2 − (n − 1)2

is a telescopic sum and only the term n2 does not cancel. Hence,
n
X
(2j − 1) = n2 .
j=1

Another more elaborate way to do it is the following: On the one hand,

1
X
j 2 = 1. Therefore, assume that n ≥ 2. Recall that j 2 − (j − 1)2 = j 2 −
j=1
j 2 + 2j − 1 = 2j − 1 for all j ∈ N, thus
n
X n
X
j 2 − (j − 1)2


(2j − 1) =
j=1 j=1
n
X n
X
= j2 − (j − 1)2
j=1 j=1
n−1
X n
X
= n2 + j2 − (j − 1)2 . (1.2)
j=1 j=2

In the last equality we have used for the second summation the fact that when
j = 1, we have (j − 1)2 = 0. Now, in the first summation of the third line of
(1.2) we make the change of variable k = j −1 (we leave the second summation
as it is, but we write k instead j since the value does not change), and we
obtain
X n Xn Xn
2 2
(2j − 1) = n + k − (k − 1)2 = n2 .
j=1 k=2 k=2
(ii). We are using part (i) above:
n
X n
X n
X n
X
n2 = (2j − 1) = 2 j− 1=2 j − n.
j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
n
X
Leaving only the summation j on one side yields
j=1
n
X 1 2
n(n + 1)
j= n +n = .
j=1
2 2
 The Field of Real Numbers 5

(iii). First, we are going to apply a similar method to the one used in
part (i). Observe that j 3 − (j − 1)3 = 3j 2 − 3j + 1 with j ∈ N. Indeed,

j 3 − (j − 1)3 = j 3 − j 3 + 3j 2 − 3j + 1 = 3j 2 − 3j + 1.

Then,
n
X n

X
j 3 − (j − 1)3 = 3j 2 − 3j + 1


j=1 j=1
Xn n
X n
X
=3 j2 − 3 j+ 1
j=1 j=1 j=1
Xn Xn
=3 j2 − 3 j + n. (1.3)
j=1 j=1

Observe that the first summation of (1.3) is a telescopic sum:

n
X
j 3 − (j − 1)3 = 1 + (8 − 1) + (27 − 8) + · · ·


j=1

+ (n − 1)3 − (n − 2)3 + n3 − (n − 1)3 ,

and the only term that does not cancel is n3 . Now, applying part (ii) on the
right-hand side of (1.3), we arrive at
n
X 3n(n + 1)
n3 = 3 j2 − + n.
j=1
2

n
X
Leaving only the summation j 2 on one side, we obtain
j=1

n  
X
2 1 3 3n(n + 1)
j = n + −n
j=1
3 2
2n3 + 3n(n + 1) − 2n
=
6

2
n 2n + 3n + 1
=
6
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= ,
6
where in the last equality we have factorized 2n2 + 3n + 1 by solving the
quadratic equation.
6 Real Analysis

Exercise 1.5. Some of these statements about natural numbers n and

p are true and others false. Decide which one is which and justify your
answer.
(i) n2 is even if, and only if, n is even.
(ii) (n + p)2 is even if, and only if, (n − p)2 is even.

(iii) If np is odd, then n + p is even.

(iv) If n2 + np + p2 is even, then np is even.
(v) If n2 + np + p2 is even, then n and p are even.

Solution to Exercise 1.5.

(i). True. Observe that it is an equivalence, so we have to prove two things.
The left to right implication and the right to left one.
(⇐) First, we are going to prove the right to left one; that is, we have to
show that if n is even, then n2 is even. To do so, we will use the direct
method. Assume that n is even, then there is a k ∈ Z such that n = 2k.
Now, squaring the equality n = 2k, we have

n2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ) = 2k ′ ,

where k ′ = 2k 2 ∈ Z, that is, n2 is even.

(⇒) Second, we are proving the left to right implication; that is, we are
showing that if n2 is even, then n is even. Once again, we are using the
direct method. Assume that n2 is even. We know that n is a natural
number, so it is either even or odd. We can express the latter claim in
the following way: n = 2k + r with k ∈ Z and r ∈ {0, 1}. Squaring
n = 2k + r gives us:

n2 = (2k + r)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + r2 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + r2 = 2k ′ + r2 ,

where k ′ = 2k 2 +2k ∈ Z. Since we are assuming that n2 is even, it is clear

that r2 must be 0. So, as r2 = 0, we have r = 0. Thus, n = 2k + r = 2k
with k ∈ Z, that is, n is even.

Since we have verified both implications, the statement is true.

 The Field of Real Numbers 7

(ii). True.

(⇐) First, we are proving the right to left implication using the direct
method. Assume that (n − p)2 is even. If n − p ∈ N, then by (i) we
have that n − p is even. If n − p ∈ Z \ N, then n − p = 0 provided that
n = p, or n − p = (−1) · (p − n) if n < p. Now, if n < p, then p − n ∈ N;
hence, by (i) we have that p − n is even. Therefore, in any case we have
that n − p is even, which implies that n and p have the same parity.
That is, n = 2k ′ + r for some k ′ ∈ Z and r ∈ {0, 1}, and p = 2k ′′ + r
with k ′′ ∈ Z. Thus,

(n + p)2 = (2k ′ + r + 2k ′′ + r)2 = 2 · 2(k ′ + r + k ′′ )2 = 2k ′′′ ,

where k ′′′ = 2(k ′ + r + k ′′ )2 ∈ Z, that is, (n + p)2 is even.

(⇒) Finally, we are proving the left to right implication using the direct
method. Assume that (n + p)2 is even, then by (i) we have that n + p
is even. The latter implies that n and p have the same parity; that is,
there exist k, k ′ ∈ Z and r ∈ {0, 1} such that n = 2k + r y p = 2k ′ + r.
Hence,

(n − p)2 = [2k + r − (2k ′ + r)]2 = 2 · 2(k − k ′ )2 = 2k ′′

where k ′ = 2(k − k ′ )2 ∈ Z, that is, (n − p)2 is even.

(iii). True. We will prove it using the direct method.

If np is odd, then n and p are odd. That is, there are k, k ′ ∈ Z such that
n = 2k − 1 y p = 2k ′ − 1. Therefore,

n + p = 2k − 1 + 2k ′ − 1 = 2(k + k ′ − 1) = 2k ′′ ,

where k ′′ = k + k ′ − 1 ∈ Z, that is, n + p is even.

(iv). True. We are going to prove it by contrapositive. Assume that np is odd
and let us see show that then n2 + np + p2 is odd.
Since np is odd, we have that n and p are odd; that is, there exist k, k ′ , k ′′ ∈
Z such that n = 2k − 1, p = 2k ′ − 1, and np = 2k ′′ − 1. Hence,

n2 + np + p2 = (2k − 1)2 + (2k ′′ − 1) + (2k ′ − 1)2

= 4k 2 − 4k + 1 + 2k ′′ − 1 + 4(k ′ )2 − 4k ′ + 1
= 2(2k 2 − 2k + k ′′ + 2(k ′ )2 − 2k ′ ) + 1
= 2k ′′′ + 1,

where k ′′′ = 2k 2 − 2k + k ′′ + 2(k ′ )2 − 2k ′ ∈ Z, which means that n2 + np + p2

is odd.
(v). True. We will prove it by contrapositive, that is, assume that one of the
numbers n, p is odd, and let us see that n2 + np + p2 is odd. If n and p are odd,
then we have that np is odd. Assume that n is odd and p is even (analogously
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