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The Rhetoric of Rebel Women by Kimberly Harrison explores the rhetorical significance of Southern plantation-class women's diaries during the Civil War, highlighting their active roles in shaping Confederate identity and culture. The book argues that these women's writings were critical for self-expression and negotiation of their societal roles amidst wartime challenges. Through meticulous research, Harrison reveals how these diaries contributed to the understanding of women's experiences and rhetoric in a historically male-dominated narrative.

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9 views104 pages

(Ebook) The Rhetoric of Rebel Women: Civil War Diaries and Confederate Persuasion by Kimberly Harrison ISBN 9780809332588, 0809332582 PDF Download

The Rhetoric of Rebel Women by Kimberly Harrison explores the rhetorical significance of Southern plantation-class women's diaries during the Civil War, highlighting their active roles in shaping Confederate identity and culture. The book argues that these women's writings were critical for self-expression and negotiation of their societal roles amidst wartime challenges. Through meticulous research, Harrison reveals how these diaries contributed to the understanding of women's experiences and rhetoric in a historically male-dominated narrative.

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Rhetoric

Harrison
“In The Rhetoric of Rebel Women, Kimberly Harrison focuses on Southern plantation-

The Rhetoric
class women and an underexamined genre, the diary, and makes a compelling case for
their rhetorical significance. She renders her subjects with honesty and compassion,
admiring their savvy and endurance in wartime while acknowledging their biases and
limitations, and demonstrates that diaries were critical sites for Southern women’s
rhetorical rehearsal, deliberation, appraisal, and performance. Meticulously researched, of Rebel Women
carefully contextualized, and thoughtfully argued, The Rhetoric of Rebel Women de-

Civil War Diaries �n� Confederate Persuasion


The Rhetoric of Rebel Women
Civil War
constructs conventional demarcations between the public and private spheres and
traces a marginalized group’s indirect (and too often ignored) contributions to the

Diaries �n�
polis, in the process productively complicating rhetorical history and theory.”—Lindal
Buchanan, author of Regendering Delivery and Rhetorics of Motherhood

“A rich, fresh, and compelling resource for understanding women’s lives in the Civil
War era. Harrison’s deft integration of history, theory, and criticism is a model of its
kind: well conceived, deeply informative, and gracefully written.”—Stephen Howard
Browne, author of Angelina Grimké: Rhetoric, Identity, and the Radical Imagination
Confederate
Persuasion
“Deeply informed by nuanced readings of over a hundred Southern women’s
diaries during the Civil War, and conveying a lively and balanced interdisciplinarity,
The Rhetoric of Rebel Women persuasively positions southern white women’s personal
writings as a critical force in the shaping of the Civil War and its aftermath. Author
Kimberly Harrison skillfully shows us how privileged women used their writings not
only to remake themselves amid the hardships of wartime but also, in an exciting
new interpretation, to reframe the ideology of Confederate nationalism to reflect elite
Kimberly
women’s voices and values.”—Michele Gillespie, Kahle Professor of History, Wake Harrison
Forest University

Drawing on the rich evidence in women’s Civil War diaries, The Rhetoric of Rebel Women
analyzes how the everyday speech of privileged white Southern women contributed to the
culture of the Confederate home front. Through their rhetorical choices, Southern women
took part in defining what it meant to be, and to behave as, a Confederate.

Kimberly Harrison is an associate professor of English at Florida International Univer-


sity. She is the editor of A Maryland Bride in the Deep South: The Civil War Diary of
Priscilla Bond.
Southern Illinois University Press

Studies in Rhetorics and Feminisms


Printed in the United States of America

Southern Illinois University Press


www.siupress.com

Cover illustration: Photograph of a Confederate woman wearing Confed-


erate colors, military hat, epaulets, and sash. Color added. Courtesy of the
South Carolina Confederate Relic Room and Military Museum, Columbia,
South Carolina.

Harrison_Rebel cvr mech.indd 1 7/29/13 10:25 AM


Studies in Rhetorics and Feminisms
Series Editors, Cheryl Glenn and Shirley Wilson Logan
The Rhetoric
of Rebel Women

Civil War
Diaries �n�
Confederate
Persuasion

Kimberly Harrison

Southern Illinois University Press


Carbondale
Copyright © 2013 by the Board of Trustees,
Southern Illinois University
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America

16 15 14 13 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data


Harrison, Kimberly, [date]
The rhetoric of rebel women : Civil War diaries and
Confederate persuasion / Kimberly Harrison.
pages cm. — (Studies in rhetorics and feminisms)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8093-3257-1 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-8093-3257-4 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-0-8093-3258-8 (ebook)
ISBN-10: 0-8093-3258-2 (ebook)
1. United States—History—Civil War, 1861–1865—
Women. 2. Women—Confederate States of
America—Diaries. 3. Rhetoric—Confederate States
of America. 4. English language—19th century—
Rhetoric. 5. United States—History—Civil War,
1861–1865—Social aspects. 6. Women—Language.
I. Title.
E628.H38 2013
973.7082—dc23 2013004254

Printed on recycled paper.


The paper used in this publication meets the mini-
mum requirements of American National Standard
for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for
Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.
For my parents, Bill and Laura Harrison, and of course
for Jeremy


Contents
List of Illustrations ix
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xvii

Introduction:
Words of Honor—Evidence, Exigence, and Rhetorical Selves 1
1. Dangerous Words/Domestic Spaces:
Invading Union Forces and Southern Women’s
Rhetorical Efforts in Self-Protection 25
2. A Ladylike Resistance?
Finding the Time, Place, and Means for
Voicing Political Allegiances 55
3. Guarded Tongues/Secure Communities:
Rhetorical Responsibilities and “Everyday” Audiences 83
4. Public Voices/Divine Audiences:
Confederate Women’s Prayers during the Civil War 118
5. Audiences Victorious, Defeated, and Free:
Rhetorical Purpose in the Immediate Postwar South 142
Conclusion 170

Archive Abbreviations 177


Notes 179
Bibliography 213
Index 233
Illustrations
1.1. “Arrival of a Federal Column at a Planter’s House in Dixie” 28
1.2. Union soldiers foraging at a Virginia farmhouse 42
2.1. Southern women encouraging their men to
join the Confederate war effort 57
2.2. “The Ladies of New Orleans before General Butler’s
Proclamation” and “After General Butler’s Proclamation” 61
3.1. “Southern Refugees Encamping in the Woods Near Vicksburg” 92
4.1. The Burial of Latané 119
4.2. Mississippi woman in prayer 129
5.1. Taking the Oath and Drawing Rations 145
5.2. “Richmond Ladies Going to Receive Government Rations” 156

ix
Preface
� The Rhetoric of Rebel Women: Civil War Diaries and Confederate
Persuasion recognizes elite and middle-class white Southern women’s often
overlooked rhetorical responsibilities and activities during the American
Civil War. It positions these women as active rhetoricians as they faced new
wartime audiences such as Union and Confederate soldiers, former slaves,
and family and community members strapped by economic hardships and
marked by uncertainties of war. Privileged Southern white women have cap-
tured the attention of numerous historians as well as of general audiences,
as evidenced clearly through the enduring character of Scarlett O’Hara,
whose beauty and Southern drawl coupled with romantic and economic
ambitions continue to fuel the popular imagination. In the tradition of
previous scholarship, this study looks beyond such stereotypes of Southern
belles and slave mistresses. It draws on the rich evidence in white women’s
Civil War diaries to acknowledge their wartime rhetorics as well as the
complexity of their rhetorical contexts that frequently required them to
negotiate wartime exigencies and antebellum cultural ideals, especially
regarding gender roles.
The women in this study identified, to differing degrees, with the South
and the Southern war effort. As such, they were labeled “rebels” by sup-
porters of the Union because they advocated the dissolution of the United
States. Along with fellow Confederates, “she-rebels” embraced the term,
imbuing it with positive connotations in at times active support of their
new nation. While, for the most part, they held tight to the racial, class,
and gender hierarchies of the antebellum South, not rebelling against the
foundations of their privileged culture, wartime exigencies often required
them to challenge in practice—to rebel against—gender norms, whether in
their political actions, in their daily thoughts during the difficult domestic
contexts of war, or in their words.
A rhetorical study of Confederate women’s wartime diaries offers in-
sight into questions such as the following: How did middle-class and elite
Southern white women negotiate their complex rhetorical situations that
frequently required them to act and speak in new and dangerous contexts?
How did the Civil War influence their assumptions regarding women’s

xi
� Preface �
speaking roles? What rhetorical skills and strategies did these women value
during war and its immediate aftermath? How did Southern women diarists
respond to discourses of war, to those messages emanating from politicians,
pulpits, presses, poets, and novelists that justified war and cultivated South-
ern nationalism? How did they, audiences for and symbols in Southern
war rhetoric but also rhetors themselves, contribute to these discourses of
war? And finally, what role did diary writing and reading play in women’s
cultivation and understanding of their wartime roles?
Southern women’s diary entries provide intimate snapshots of the ev-
eryday wartime contexts in which these diarists made rhetorical choices
that could have had impact upon their safety and livelihoods and those of
their families. These snapshots also encourage us to situate privileged white
Southern women’s rhetorics in the larger cultural context of the Confederate
home front and to recognize their persuasive activities as contributions to
the creation and maintenance of Confederate identity and culture. They
allow us to see Southern white women not as passive observers of national
conflict but as active participants in the war effort and to better understand
the varied rhetorical choices women made and the rhetorical traits they
valued as they interacted in the everyday contexts of national conflict. The
war did indeed take place on many of these women’s doorsteps, and as they
engaged with soldiers, officers, and fellow civilians, it was through their
verbal and nonverbal rhetorics that they, as everyday citizens, shaped the
course of the conflict in nuanced, affective ways, which we overlook when
considering only the male rhetoric of the official Confederate polis. Though
they did not often speak from the podium, privileged Southern women did
have significant wartime rhetorical responsibilities, pragmatic and patriotic,
which should be valued and studied as such.1
This study grew out of my work on one woman’s Civil War diary, that
of Priscilla Bond. As Gesa Kirsch and Liz Rohan document in their col-
lection Beyond the Archives, “serendipity, chance discoveries, and personal
connections” play important roles in the selection of a research subject.2
Such was certainly the case for my current work. A chance encounter with
Bond’s diary as I completed an archival assignment in my last graduate class
sparked an unexpected interest. I had purposefully avoided a focus on south-
ern studies in graduate school. Being from Louisiana, I was convinced that
I needed at least scholarly distance from the South. Yet, as I completed my
dissertation in writing studies and rhetorical theory, I knew that I wanted
to return to Bond’s diary. When I had the chance, I did, and as I read this
diary through the lens of rhetoric, noticing attempts at self-persuasion, the
writer’s developing agency and ethos, and her careful recounting of her and

xii
� Preface �
other women’s speech acts, I wondered if I would find similar accounts in
other middle- and upper-class Southern women’s wartime diaries. If so, I re-
alized, such entries would be valuable evidence for historians in their efforts
to better understand Southern women’s rhetorical past, and so I began to
research other women’s diaries. In visiting archives, I began to see patterns
in women’s recording of their wartime rhetorical acts, in their emphasis on
the importance of effective self-presentation, and in their efforts to instruct
themselves in decorous, or contextually fitting, speech or silence during the
tumultuous years of the Civil War and its immediate aftermath.
I have organized the following chapters based upon Southern women’s
primary audiences and rhetorical purposes, with a recurring thread through
all the chapters being the diarists’ cultivation of rhetorical agency and their
use of their diaries to prepare themselves for wartime rhetorical challenges,
efforts that I label as “self-rhetorics.” Regarding terminology, the women
who are the focus of this study were white and of elite or middling classes,
women most likely to have kept diaries in the mid-nineteenth century South
and to have had their writing saved for posterity.3 They were also, to varying
degrees, supporters of the Confederacy. Throughout the chapters, I will
continue to clarify that I am referring to white, privileged Southern women
of the slaveholding class with appropriate qualifiers, but occasionally, in the
interests of readability and to avoid repetition, qualifiers will be omitted
and “women” or “diarists” will stand alone with the full assumption that
my subject is clear to the reader and that I am not generalizing beyond the
evidence provided by the diarists. The introduction further explains my
overarching argument, contextualizes this study, and defines key concepts
that inform this work.
Chapter 1, “Dangerous Words/Domestic Spaces: Invading Union Forces
and Southern Women’s Rhetorical Efforts in Self-Protection,” focuses on
Southern white women’s encounters with Union soldiers in which women’s
primary rhetorical goal was to protect their families, their property, and
themselves. I argue, however, that self-protection was not Southern women’s
only rhetorical objective in such contexts; they also strove to communicate
Southern honor in support of the Confederate cause. Positioned uneasily
in wartime discourses as both victim to Union marauders and as a stand-in
for the Southern patriarch, diarists frequently urged themselves to rhe-
torical bravery and self-control and sought to enact what I call “gendered
rhetorics of honor.” As they faced what had previously to many seemed
unthinkable—invading enemy troops—they saw themselves not only as
serving their own interests but, in one diarist’s words, as representing the
“spirit of the South.”4 To illustrate the above points, the chapter focuses on

xiii
� Preface �
three common content strands in the diaries of women who, in the role of
self-protector, faced Union troops. First, they frequently penned entries in
anticipation of and in preparation for meeting Union forces, often recasting
themselves as protector, not as a helpless victim. Second, the diarists de-
scribed, frequently in detail, their encounters with Union troops, encounters
that further challenged traditional gender definitions as women’s appeals
based on their identity as women, and particularly as “ladies,” met with
failure in the contexts of war. And third, I analyze entries in which women
wrote about their use of silence in communicating honor. The chapter con-
cludes with attention to rhetorical silence in relation to the oath of loyalty
that Southerners, including women, were required to take in order to secure
protection and supplies in Union-controlled territories.
The second chapter, “A Ladylike Resistance? Finding the Time, Place, and
Means for Voicing Political Allegiances,” also concentrates on elite white
women’s interaction with Union troops, but it reevaluates the stereotype of
the thoughtlessly virulent “she-rebel” by analyzing Confederate women’s
verbal and nonverbal resistance to occupying Union troops. Through their
rhetorical resistance, Southern white women acted in support of their cause
and continued in their efforts to define Confederate patriotism on the home
front. The chapter begins by establishing that for some Confederate women,
regardless of conventional gendered etiquette, political resistance was a
wartime rhetorical responsibility, albeit one with potential dangers. I look
to the examples of General Benjamin Butler’s notorious “Woman Order”
and to Southern opinion regarding public women rebels, including Eugenia
Phillips and Belle Boyd, to illustrate the contested gendered contexts in
which Confederate women enacted their resistant rhetorics. Drawing on
Catherine Allgor’s concept of “unofficial spaces” in political history and
on Lindal Buchanan’s recognition of a “feminine delivery style,” I then
categorize the forms of resistant rhetorics most commonly employed by
Confederate women, demonstrating when applicable the challenges women
met in such rhetorical activity and analyzing, also when applicable, wom-
en’s self-rhetorics for enacting political resistance. The chapter concludes
with a focus on one woman, Ellen Renshaw House, who exercised multiple
forms of resistant rhetorics and was eventually exiled from her home in
Union-controlled Knoxville, Tennessee, for her efforts. House’s example
vividly illustrates the difficulties faced by Confederate women in reconciling
their political activism with their identity as ladies.
In addition to the difficulties and dangers of interacting with Union sol-
diers, privileged Southern white women faced rhetorical challenges within
their own homes and communities. While encountering Union troops,

xiv
� Preface �
they exercised, often newly, their political voices and yet also felt compelled
to maintain, in their interactions with family and local communities, tra-
ditional feminine qualities that defined the idealized Southern “lady,” a
concept that implied both racial and economic privilege as well as the em-
bodiment of qualities such as piety, purity, and a gentle submission to the
wants and needs of others. Such qualities, however, were frequently difficult
to perform as war marked domestic contexts with anxiety and deprivation.
Chapter 3 illustrates the importance for women of their “everyday” wartime
audiences that included family, community members, and slaves and of con-
texts including homes and communities that increasingly were transformed
by war. Within wartime homes, Southern white women realized that careful
speech and silence were important in sustaining fragile familial relation-
ships upon which they depended. Additionally, as they interacted within
their community, privileged Southern women were required to take on new
business-related responsibilities, finding that rhetorics of conciliation did
not always serve their interests, nor did they uphold gendered rhetorics of
honor. Additionally, I analyze slave mistresses’ rhetorical efforts for self-con-
trol in slave management, a responsibility that elite women increasingly
performed with their men at war. Within often uneasy settings, diarists
encouraged themselves to be careful in speech and to keep rhetorical silences
with the goal of maintaining peaceable homes and working relationships
with community members and slaves.
Chapter 4 examines women’s descriptions of their interactions with
their God. Numerous Confederate women considered it their rhetorical
responsibility to petition divine favor for the South. In their wartime diaries,
they frequently penned prayers and prepared to address their God. This
chapter illustrates that a number of secessionist women saw their prayers
as public rhetorical efforts that connected them with fellow Southerners
and provided them an active role in the war effort. It outlines the historical
context for a collective political view of Confederate women’s wartime de-
votional responsibility, drawing on examples of popular wartime sermons
and literature that positioned white Southern women not only as individ-
ual Christians accountable to God but as part of the South, collectively
accountable for national sins. Diarists’ words illustrate how these women
responded to public calls that linked religion and Southern patriotism and
show the collective and political nature of their devotional rhetorics. To
conclude, the chapter concentrates on the self-rhetorical function of women’s
literacy as diarists prepared to address a wartime God. In doing so, slave
mistresses frequently sought to mollify their own ambivalence regarding
slavery through the acts of reading and writing as they urged God’s favor

xv
� Preface �
for their new nation, one formed to preserve an institution whose abuses
they had witnessed firsthand.
Chapter 5, “Audiences Victorious, Defeated, and Free: Rhetorical Pur-
pose in the Immediate Postwar South,” charts former Confederate women’s
immediate rhetorical priorities in the aftermath of civil war, finding a re-
linquishing, though at times a reluctant one, of political rhetorical respon-
sibilities by many diarists and a more narrow focus on domestic interests.
First analyzing the impact of defeat on women’s diary writing and their
initial self-rhetorical efforts to define their postwar roles, the chapter then
turns to diarists’ interaction with their common postwar audiences. These
audiences still included Union soldiers, family and community members,
newly freed black men and women, and their God, though to differing
degrees and for differing purposes.
The Rhetoric of Rebel Women suggests the value of a rhetorical lens
through which we can focus in detail on Confederate women’s words. What
did they say? In which contexts did they speak or remain silent? What do
their rhetorical choices, or at least their recounting of their choices, tell us
about how they defined their wartime roles? The following chapters are
efforts to listen carefully to Southern white women diarists to better under-
stand how they responded to the difficult and often dangerous contexts of
war and how the rhetorical agency of everyday citizens helped create and
sustain Confederate identity and shape the course of the Civil War.

xvi
Acknowledgments
� While working on this book, I have met with an enormous amount
of kind support and guidance for which I am very grateful. Carol Mattingly
first encouraged me to pursue this project and offered invaluable advice on
early drafts. Her help and her example as a scholar, teacher, and friend have
been essential not only to this project but also to my larger understanding
of working in women’s rhetorical history. Ronald and Mary Zboray also
encouraged my early interest in this project and inspired me with their
dedication to archival work and with their meticulous research methods.
Conversations with emerging scholar Richard Fantina were fruitful at early
stages of planning, and he is certainly missed. Bruce Harvey has carefully
read parts of the manuscript and provided expert advice. Darden Pyron has
also graciously offered his expertise as a Southern historian. Additionally, I
received guidance from other scholars at professional conferences, includ-
ing those at Feminisms and Rhetorics and at meetings of the Coalition of
Women Scholars in the History of Rhetoric and Composition.
Grants from the Andrew W. Mellon Research Fellowship to visit the Vir-
ginia Historical Society and the Mary Lily Research Grant to visit the Sallie
Bingham Center for Women’s History and Culture at Duke University were
essential in allowing travel to archives. Also essential was the expert and cor-
dial assistance of the many archivists and historians associated with museums
and their collections whom I have worked with over my years of research.
Particular gratitude is due to Jameatris Johnson Rimkus at the University of
Miami, Nelson Lankford at the Virginia Historical Society, John Coski at the
Museum of the Confederacy, and Tara Laver at Louisiana State University.
I have also been fortunate to have a collegial and supportive working en-
vironment as well as institutional support at Florida International University.
The provost’s office provided a summer grant that supported archival work
and then granted a sabbatical that allowed me time for revisions. Department
chair James Sutton understood and assisted me in finding the time needed
to complete such a project. The help of colleagues at the FIU library has also
been crucial, especially those from the Biscayne Bay campus and special col-
lections. While it has been a challenge to balance research and administrative
responsibilities, it would have been impossible without the wonderful and

xvii
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