SRI KUMARAN CHILDREN’S HOME

COMPOSITE PU COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
II-PUC
STUDY MATERIAL

UNIT- VIII
BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE
CHAPTER: 7
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

Prepared By:- PRASANNA.N.M (NMP)

BIOLOGY LECTURER
SRI KUMARAN’S PU COLLEGE
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES.

Contents:
8.1. Common Diseases in Humans.
8.2. Immunity.
8.3. AIDS.
8.4. Cancer.
8.5. Drugs and Alcohol Abuse.

9.
As defined by World Health Organization (WHO), Health is a "State of complete
physical, mental, and social wellbeing” .Good health is a state of optimum physical fitness,
mental maturity and alertness with freedom from anxiety and social well being with freedom from social
tensions.
1. CHARACTERS OF HEALTHY PERSON:-
 They are more efficient at work.
 Increases productivity and brings economic prosperity.
 Health increases longevity of people and reduces infant and maternal mortality.
2. FACTORS WHICH AFFECTS HEALTH:-
 Genetic disorders (which inherited from one generation to another generation).
 Infectious diseases (Through pathogens).
 Life style including food and water we take, rest and exercise we give to our body, habits that we
have or lack etc,
3. FACTORS FOR MAINTENANCE OF GOOD HEALTH:
 Balance diet
 Personal hygiene.
 Tension less life.
 Regular exercise, meditation and Yoga.
 Awareness about vaccinations, infectious diseases etc,
4. DISEASES:A condition in which improper functioning of one or more organs or
systems of the body is adversely affected and characterized by various
symptoms is called disease.
5. CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES:
 Infectious diseases
 Non infectious diseases
 Genetic disease.
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES OR INFECTIOUS DISEASES:-Diseases which are easily
transmitted from one person to another are called infectious diseases.
Ex: AIDS, Typhoid etc.
NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES OR NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES:-Diseases which are not
transmitted from one person to another are called infectious diseases.
Ex: Cancer, Diabetes etc.
8.1. COMMON DISEASES IN HUMANS:-
PATHOGENS:Diseases causing organisms are called pathogens.
 Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, Helminthes etc.
 All pathogens quickly adapted to host internal environment in order to survive.

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I. BACTERIAL DISEASES: It includes,
1. Typhoid.
2. Pneumonia.
1. TYPHOID:-
 Causative organism: Salmonella typhi
 Mode of infection: Contaminated food and water.
 Affected organs: First enter in to intestine and then migrated to different body organs through
blood.
 Symptoms:
 Sustained high fever(390-400C)
 Weakness.
 Stomach pain.
 Constipation.
 Headache.
 Loss of appetite
 In severe cases Proliferation of intestine which leads to death.
 Diagnose: usually diagnosed using a stool sample or blood sample, by Widal test.
NOTE:-Mary Mallon now known as Typhoid Mary was the first Healthy carrier of typhoid fever
in the United States. She was a cook and gets affected with typhoid and she spread typhoid through food
she prepared within six years.

2. PNEUMONIA:-
 Causative organism: Streptococcus pneumonia (a spherical shaped bacteria)or
Haemophilus influenzae ( a rod shaped bacteria)
 Mode of infection: By inhaling droplets/aerosols released by infected person or sharing utensils and
glasses with an infected person.
 Affected organs: Alveoli (air filled sacs of lungs).
 Symptoms:
 Due to infection alveoli filled with fluid leads to respiratory problems.
 Fever, Chills, cough and headache.
 In severe cases lips and finger nails may turn grey to bluish colour.
NOTE: Some of the common bacterial diseases are Dysentery, Plague, Diphtheria etc
II. VIRAL DISEASES:-It includes,
COMMON COLD:-
Causative organism: Rhino viruses.
Mode of infection: i) The viruses are transmitted through droplets from cough and sneeze of
an infected person.
ii) Transmission can also takes place through contaminated objects like
utensils, books, pens ,cups, computer keyboard. Toys (children are
more sensitive)
 Affected organs: Upper respiratory tract including nose.(not affects lungs)
 Symptoms:
 Nasal congestion
 Cough
 Sore throat, hoarseness.
 Running nose, headache.
 Fever which usually resolve in 7-10 days.
NOTE: Some of the common viral diseases are Influenza, Measles, Herpes, Chickenpox, Smallpox,
polio, Dengue, Chikungunya, Rabies etc.
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III. PROTOZOAN DISEASES:-it includes,
1. Malaria
2. Amoebiasis
MALARIA:-
Causative organism:Plasmodium vivax
Mode of infection:Transmitted through infected Female mosquito bite.
Affected organs:Liver and Matured RBCs.
Symptoms:
 Symptoms usually appear about 12 to 14 days after infection.
 High fever, chill, fever occurs in every alternate day,
 Headache above eyebrow and vomiting.
 The attack of malaria is preceded by tiredness.
 Muscular pain.
NOTE:-There are four species of Plasmodium which cause four main types of malaria in human.
 Plasmodium vivax: Causes benign tertian malaria in which fever recurs after every 48
hours.
 P.malariae: Causes quartan malaria in which fever appears after 72 hours, and often produces
persistent subclinical malaria.
 P.falciparum: Causes cerebral malaria or malignant and fatal malaria where
fever recurs after every 48 hours.
 P.ovale: Causes mild tertian malaria.
AMOEBIASIS (AMOEBIC DYSENTRY):-
 Causative organism: Entamoeba histolytica.
 Mode of infection: i) person takes contaminated food with cysts of Entamoeba.
ii) House flies acts as mechanical carriers which carries
parasites from faeces of infected person to food.
iii) Contaminated drinking water also contains cysts of Entamoeba.
 Affected organ:Large intestine.
 Symptoms:
 Constipation.
 Abdominal pain and cramp.
 Stools with excess mucous and blood clots.
NOTE: Some of the protozoan diseases are Kal-azar- Leshmania, Sleeping sickness-
Trypanosoma
IV. HELMINTH DISEASES:-It includes,
1. Ascariasis.
2. Filariasis OR Elephantiasis.
ASCARIASIS:-
 Causative organism:Ascaris lumbricoeds.(Round worm)
 Mode of infection:i)The eggs of ascaris released from faeces of infected person, mixes with
water and soil.
ii)If healthy person consume vegetable and fruits derived from such soil
the eggs enter in to the intestine and developed in to worm.
 Affected organ: Intestine.
 Symptoms:
 internal bleeding,
 Muscular pain,
 Fever,

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  Anemia
 Blockage of the intestinal passage.
FILARIASIS OR ELEPHANTIASIS:-
 Causative organism:
Wuchereria bancrofti & W.malayi
 Mode of infection: It is carried to healthy person by
infected Culex and Aedes female mosquito
 Affected organs: Lymph nodes of lower limbs and
genital organs.
 Symptoms:
 They cause a slowly developing chronic
inflammation of the organs in which they live for
many years, usually the lymphatic vessels of the
lower limbs.
 Abnormal enlargement of lower limb(hence the name elephantiasis-elephant leg like) and
scrotal sac
V. FUNGAL DISEASES:- It includes
RING WORM:
 Causative organism: Microsporum ,Trichophyton andEpidermophyton
 Mode of infection: Carried through air soil infected clothes and even from comb of infected
persons.
 Affected organ: Skin, nail, ,scalp, Hairs pelvic and pectoral joints.
 Symptoms: i) Main symptoms of the disease are appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various
parts of the body such as skin, nails and scalp.
ii) These lesions are accompanied by intense itching. Heat and moisture help these
fungi to grow.
LIFE CYCLE OF MALARIAL PARASITE (PLASMODIUM):-
The Malaria parasite life cycle involves two hosts. The primary host is female
anopheles mosquito and secondary or intermediate host is human beings.
 During a blood meal, a malaria-infected female Anopheles mosquito inoculates sporozoitesin
to the human host.
 Now sporozoites infect liver cells, reproduce asexually, finally rupture and release Merozoites
in to the blood.
 Merozoites infect red blood cells, reproduce asexually, finallyand which rupture releasing
Merozoites.
 During this process ruptured RBCs produce a toxic chemical called as haemozoin, which leads
to Chill and fever (increase in body temperature up to 1000f and is the first malarial
symptom).
 Some Merozoites in the red blood cells differentiated in to gametocytes.
 Here both male and female gametocyte is ingested by an Anopheles mosquito during blood meal.
 Inside the mosquito two gametes fuse to form zygote, it is enter in to body cavity region where
it develops in to sporozoites and finally reaches mosquito’s salivary glands.
 Inoculation of the sporozoites in to a new human host and completes the malarial life cycle.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF COMMUNICABLE OR INFECTIOUS DISEASES:-
1. MAINTENANCE OF PERSONAL HYGIENE:-
 It includes awareness of disease, their mode of infection, effect, symptoms and etiology of
pathogens.

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  Measures for personal hygiene include keeping the body clean, consumption of clean drinking
water, food, vegetables, fruits, etc.
2. MAINTENANCE OF PUBLIC HYGIENE:-
 It includes public awareness of disease, their mode of infection, effect, symptoms and etiology
of pathogens.
 It includes proper disposal of waste and excreta, periodic cleaning and disinfection of water
reservoirs, pools and tanks and observing standard practices of hygiene in public catering.

3. AWARENESS REGARDING AIR, WATER AND SOIL BORN DISEASES:-

 Some of the air , water born and soil born diseases easily spreads in children and protect the
children from such infections.
4. AWARENESS REGARDING VECTOR COMMUNICABLE DISEASES:-

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  For diseases such as malaria and filariasis prevention can be achieved by avoiding stagnation of
water in and around residential areas, regular cleaning of household coolers, use of mosquit nets,
 introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae, spraying of
insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and swamps, etc.
5. PROPER IMMUNIZATION:-
 The advancements made in biological science have armed us to effectively deal with many
infectious diseases.
 The use of vaccines and immunization programme has enabled us to completely eradicate
deadly disease likely smallpox. polio, diphtheria, pneumonia and tetanus.

8.2. IMMUNITY:-
 The ability of the host to fight against disease causing organisms by
immune system is called immunity.
 The study of body’s defense mechanisms against pathogens is called Immunology.
TYPES OF IMMUNITY:-
A. Innate or inborn or Nonspecific defense mechanisms.
B. Acquired or Adaptive or Specific defense mechanisms.
I. INNATE IMMUNITY:-
 Innate immunity is a non-specific type of defense present at the time of
birth (Inborn immunity).
 It is considered as first line body defense
 It is barrier defense system.
 It quickly killed pathogens.
 It is not resistant to specific pathogens.
TYPES OF BARRIER DEFENSE: Innate immunity consists of four types of barriers
A. Physical barriers.
B. Physiological barriers.
C. Cellular barriers.
D. Cytokine barriers.
A. PHYSICAL BARRIERS:-Prevent the entry of pathogens into the body it includes,
 Skin: Skin on our body prevents entry of pathogens and other harmful substances in to the body
due to presence of Keratinized epithelium. Fully keratinized cells successfully prevent the
entry of viruses and bacteria.
 Mucus membrane: Mucus containing epithelial cells lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal
and urogenital tracts helps in trapping microbes which entering our body.
 Nasal hairs: trap dust particles and microorganisms in the nasal cavity.
B. PHYSIOLOGICAL BARRIERS:-
 Acid in stomach: Gastric juices contain HCL which kills most ingested microbes in
stomach.
 Saliva in mouth: salivary juice contain lysozyme enzyme which kills the pathogens in
mouth.
 Sweat: consists of highly alkaline medium which destroy the pathogen on the skin.
 Tear in eye: Tear is secreted by lacrimal glands in the eye consists of lysozyme
enzyme which kills bacteria
C. CELLULAR BARRIERS:
 Cellular barriers include our WBC cells like
 Polymorpho-nuclearleukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils),
 Natural killers ( A type of lymphocytes) cells,
 Macrophages, monocytes. (acts phagocytosis and kills the pathogens)

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D. CYTOKINE BARRIERS:-It includes interferon.
 INTERFERON: Interferon’s are anti-viral proteins released by viral infected living cells
and make the surrounding cells resistant to viral infection by inhibiting multiplication of viral
particle.

II. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY:-

 Acquired immunity is resistant to specific antigens or pathogens.
 Immunity developed by the body after the pathogens entry hence it is called as adaptive
immunity.
 Immunity formed after the birth.
 Unique features of acquired immunity are specificity, diversity, discrimination between self and
non self and memory.
 Specificity: This immunity distinguishes specific pathogens.
 Diversity: This immunity identifies different variety of pathogens.
 Discrimination between self and non self: This immunity can recognize the
foreign protein to destroy and host protein not to destroy.
 Memory: Once it recognizes the specific pathogen and it can memorize throughout the life
span.
 Acquired immunity is due to Lymphocytes.
 Acquired immunity exhibit two types of immune responses.
 The specific reactivity induced in a host by a pathogen is known as the immune response.
How acquired immunity acts?
Primary and secondary immune response.
 PRIMARY IMMUNE RESPONSE:-
 If body encounters a pathogen for the first time, produce response is called primary
immune response.
 It takes much longer time to develop because of the requirement of suitable receptor
development.
 It is of low intensity.
 It last for a short period.
 SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE:-
 If body gets subsequent encounter with same pathogen produce response called
secondary immune response.
 This response is quicker than the primary immune response, i.e. our body develops certain
memory cells to recognize the same pathogen.
 It is highly intensified or anamnestic response.
 It last for a longer period.
 The mechanism of acquired immunity is carried out by a special type of WBC cells called as
Lymphocytes which are present in our blood.
 There are two types of lymphocytes
 T-lymphocytes.
 B-lymphocytes.
ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES:-
 Antigens and antibodies play a significant role in acquired immunity.
 Antigens is a foreign protein or the protein produced by pathogen.
 Antibodies are the proteins produced by B-lymphocytes in response to antigens and recognize
them and destroy them.

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STRUCTURE OF ANTIBODY:-

 Antibodies are specific proteins produced by B-lymphocytes in response to

specific pathogens.
 It isY shaped protein made up of four polypeptide chains.
 Out of four chains two of them are short chains these are called light chains.
 Other two chains are long chains called heavy chains, hence an antibody is represented
asH2L2.
 These four chains are held together by disulphide bonds.
 Each china has constant region (C) and a variable region (V).
 The variable regions are present at the tip of two arms. The rest of the arms form the constant
region.
 The amino acid sequence in variable region varies and in constant region it remains same.
 There are different types of antibodies, IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD and IgG.
1. B- LYMPHOCYTES:-
 They are bone marrow dependent lymphocytes.
 They are formed and differentiated in bone marrow.
 B-lymphocytes produce a special type of protein called as “Antibody”in response to
pathogen in the blood and destroy them.
 It exhibit Humoral immunity i.e. antibody mediated immunity.
2. T- LYMPHOCYTES OR T- CELLS:-
 T-lymphocytes are thymus gland dependent lymphocytes.
 They are formed in bone marrow but differentiated in thymus gland.
 T- Lymphocyte do not produce “antibody” but helps B-lymphocytes to produce antibodies.
 It exhibit both cell mediated.
TYPES OF AQUIRED IMMUNE RESPONSE:-
A. Humoral immunity or antibody mediated immunity(AMI)
B. Cell mediated immunity (CMI).
A. HUMORAL IMMUNITY OR ANTIBODY MEDIATED IMMUNITY(AMI):-
 B-lymphocytes are involved in this immunity.
 Here B-lymphocytes produce antibodies which are carried by blood and lymph and destroy
specific antigens. Hence It is called Humoral immunity.
B. CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY(CMI):-
 A type of immune response in which T-lymphocytes are actively involved called cell
mediated immunity.

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  Here T-Lymphocytes directly binds to antigen producing pathogen and destroy it.
 Here TH cells produce certain chemicals which activate the T-killer cells, which eventually
binds the antigen producing pathogens and destroy it.

 ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION:-
 It is the implantation of an organ or tissue from one part of body to another or from one person
(donor) to another (recipient).
 It may result in the rejection of transplanted organ. The immune system recognizes the protein in
the transplanted tissue or organ as foreign and initiates cellular immunity.
 For graft rejection cell mediated immunity is responsible i.e., T-lymphocytes
are directly responsible for it.
 To suppress the immune response during transplantation histocompatibility antigens and
immune-suppressants play an important role.
 For successful organ transplantation Tissue matching, blood group matching are
essential before undertaking any graft/transplant and even after this the patient has to take
immuno suppressants all his/her life.

MECHANISMS OF SPECIFIC IMMUNITY:-

III. ACTIVE IMMUNITY and PASSIVE IMMUNITY:-
A. ACTIVE IMMUNITY:-
 When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or dead microbes or other
proteins, antibodies are produced in the host body is called as Active immunity.
 Immunity is not immediate. It takes time for full effectiveness.
 It lasts for sufficiently long period, may be lifelong.
 Side effects are very few.
 It is memory based immunity.
Ex: Infections from live pathogens and injecting microbes deliberately during immunization.
TYPES OF ACTIVE IMMUNITY:-
 Natural active immunity: Immunity through infections from live pathogens.
 Artificial active immunity: Immunity through injecting dead microbes by Vaccinations.

B. PASSIVE IMMUNITY:-
 When ready- made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign agents is
called as Passive immunity.
 Immunity develops immediately.(immunity is very quick)
 It lasts for a few days.
 It is not memory based immunity.
 Little side effects are there.
Ex: Colostrum and Antivenin
TYPES OF PASSIVE IMMUNITY:-
 Natural passive immunity:- The yellowish fluid Colostrum secreted by mother
during the initial days of lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant. Foetus
receives certain antibodies IgG from mother during pregnancy through placenta.
 Artificial passive immunity:-Occurs when antibodies produced artificially are injected
into a person to counteract antigens such as snake venom, rabies, tetanus toxin and Salmonella
infection etc.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ACTIVE IMMUNITY AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY:-
ACTIVE IMMUNITY PASSIVE IMMUNITY
1. It is produced due to contact with It is produced due to antibodies obtained
pathogen or its antigen. from outside.
2. Immunity is not immediate. It takes Immunity develops immediately.
time for full effectiveness.
3. It lasts for sufficiently long period, It lasts for a few days.
may be lifelong.
4. Side effects are very few. At times the body reacts to the introduction
of anti sera. It is called serum sickness.
5.. l memory based Not memory based

IV. VACCINATION AND IMMUNIZATION:-

The main principles of Vaccination and immunization are based on the
property of memory of immune system.
 VACCINE:-Any inactive or weakened or partially killed antigenic protein of a pathogen is called
vaccine.
 VACCINATION:- The process of introduction of vaccines into the body to get immunity is called
vaccination. It may be oral or injectable vaccination.
 IMMUNIZATION:-It is a process by which the body produces antibodies against the
administered vaccine which provide immunity.
TYPES OF IMMUNIZATION:
 ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION:- If our body produce certain antibodies to neutralize the antigens
and provide immunity is called active immunity
Ex: Polio vaccines, MMR vaccines etc
 PASSIVE IMMUNISATION:- Specific artificial antibodies or anti toxins injected to the
body against deadly microbes or pathogens for quick immune response are called as passive
immunity.
EX: In case of snake bite the injection which is given to the patients, contain performed
antibodies against the snake venom (anti venom). And anti tetanus injections
Types of vaccines:-
 First generation vaccines:- Killed virus (Ex:-Polio vaccines)
 Second generation vaccines:-Recombinant DNA vaccines (Ex:-Hepatitis B vaccines)
 Third generation vaccines:- DNA vaccines(clinical trials) Ex;-HIV
Recombinant DNA vaccines:-vaccines produced in large scale by recombinant DNA technology
by using bacteria and Yeast called Recombinant DNA vaccines.
EX:-Hepatitis B

V. ALLERGIES:-
 The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens
present in the environment is called as Allergy.
 Hypersensitivity or allergy is the excessive immune response to common antigens, called
allergens.
 The antibody which is directly responsible for allergy is IgE.
 Common examples of allergens are mites in dust, pollens, animal dander, etc.
 Symptoms:- The symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose
and difficulty in breathing.
 Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells.

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  Urticaria, Hay fever, asthma, anaphylaxis shock are some common examples of allergy.
 Treatment for allergy: Antihistamine, adrenaline and steroids quickly reduce
the symptoms of allergy.

VI. AUTO IMMUNITY:-

 Sometimes due to genetic or other unknown reasons in which the immune system fails to properly
distinguish between self and non self cells and attacks some parts of our body.
 When the cells act as antigens in the same body they are called auto-antigens.
 Increased helper T cells and decreased suppressor T cells functions responsible for
autoimmunity.
EX -1: Rheumatoid arthritis which affects many people in our society is an
Auto –immune disease.
VII. IMMUNE SYSTEM IN THE BODY:-
 Immune system recognizes foreign antigens, responds to these and remembers them.
 The immune system also plays an important role in allergic reactions, auto –immune disease and
organ transplantation.
 It includes the lymphoid system like lymphoid organs, Lymph, Net work of lymph
vessels, lymphoid cells (lymphocytes) and antibodies.

LYMPHOID ORGANS:-
 A group of organs where origin, maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes occurs.

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TYPES OF LYMPOID ORGANS(Based on functions):-
A. Primary lymphoid organs:-
 Where lymphocytes originate and differentiate in to antigen sensitivity property.
 Bone marrow and Thymus of mammals is considered as primary lymphoid organs.
 BONE MARROW: The main lymphoid organ where lymphocytes are produced. Bone marrow
is the site of B – lymphocyte formation and maturation.
 THYMUS:-Is the lobed organ located near the heart and beneath the breast bone site helps in
T- lymphocyte maturation.
B. Secondary lymphoid organs:-
 Organs where lymphocytes undergo proliferation and differentiation. Here the mature
lymphocytes migrates in to the secondary lymphoid organs and provide suitable space to
interact with specific antigens.
 Lymph nodes, spleen, (largest secondary lymphoid organ), tonsils, Peyer’s
patches of the small intestine, appendix and mucosal associated lymphoid
tissue (MALT) are its examples.
 SPLEEN: It is a large bean shaped lymphoid organ located above large intestine, contain
lymphocytes and phagocytes. It acts as filter of the blood by trapping blood born micro
organisms and it also serves as the large reservoir of erythrocytes.
 MALT: Is located within the lining of the major tracts (digestive, respiratory and
urinogential).Which constitute the 50% of the lymphoid tissues in the human body.
 LYMPH NODES: Small solid structures located at different points along with lymphatic
system. Their main functions are to trap the micro organisms and other deadly antigens. These
antigens which are trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of
lymphocytes present and causes immune response.
8.3. AIDS (ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME):-
 A type of sexually transmitted viral disease caused by a virus called as Human immune
deficiency virus (HIV).
 AIDS is a deficiency of immune system. It is not a congenital disease, but it is syndrome i.e.
group of symptoms which destructs immune system of our body.
 It was first reported in 1981 in USA and in last twenty years it kills more than 25 million
people across the world.
 HIV mainly affects and destroy TH cells and macrophage as a result there is a reduction
in the number of helper T cells(TH) which stimulate antibody production by B cells
resulting in loss of natural defense against viral infection.
STRUCTURE OF HIV:-

 HIV is a retrovirus that attacks helper T cells.

 The virus is spherical with a diameter of about 90 – 120 nm.

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  It has receptive glycoproteins GP-120 and GP-41 which recognize CD-4 of TH-
cells.
 It has two protein cots, outer and inner protein cots for protection.
 Its genome consists of two single stranded RNA strands, Reverse
transcriptase enzyme (RNA dependent DNA polymerase) and an integrase
enzyme.
MODE OF TRANSMISSION OF HIV:-
 Sexual contact with infected persons (un protected sexual intercourse).
 Transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products (un scientific methods of blood
transfusion).
 Sharing infected needles as intravenous drug user.
 Using unsterilized needles, surgery instruments in the hospitals.
 From infected mother to the foetus through placenta.

NOTE:HIV /AIDS is not spread by more touch or physical contact and it spread through body fluids.
MODE OF INFECTION AND LIFE CYCLE:
 By unprotected sexual activity with infected person HIV mainly enter in to the body and reaches
the TH cells or Macrophage.
 With the help of GP-120 it recognise the receptors of TH- cell CD-4.

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  Here HIV injects RNA strand, reverse transcriptase and integrase enzymes in to
the cytoplasm of TH cells.
 After the entrance of the viral RNA into the TH cells , the viral RNA replicates to form
viral DNA with the help of reverse transcriptase enzyme.(reverse transcription-
RNA synthesis DNA)
 This viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell’s DNA in presence of integrase.And remain
for longer duration in the TH cells as window stage.
 During favorable condition the integrated viral DNA in the TH cells produce m-RNA by
transcription and synthesis a specific proteins which is required for HIV protein coat.
 Here Protein covers the RNA to form number of Viruses and directs the infected cells to
discharge viruses.
 Hence Macrophage and TH cells are factories of HIV.
1. SYMPTOMS OF AIDS:-
 Continuous fever.
 Diarrhea.
 Weight loss.
 Inflammatory response around the mouth and nostril.
 The person is sensitive to bacteria like Myobacterium, viruses, fungi and parasites like
Toxoplasma because of destruction of helper-T cells.
2. DETECTION OF HIV: The incubation period of AIDS ranges between 6 months to 10 years. AIDS
can be diagnosed by ELISA test (Enzyme Linked Immuno –Sorbent Assay) and
Western blotting test. Western blotting test is employed for confirmation of ELISA positive
cases.:
3. No vaccine has been prepared so far against AIDS virus.
4. PREVENTION OF AIDS:-
 People should be educated about AIDS. Every year, December 1 is recalled as the
World AIDS Day. It is one of the methods to educate the people about AIDS.
 Blood test must be done in cases of blood donors, donors of semen, donors of organs (kidney,
lung, liver), patients undergoing haemodialysis and pregnant women.
 Disposable needles and syringes should be used. Used needles and springs must be destroyed.
 In sexual relationship, one should be monogamous.
 NACO (National AIDS Control Organization) and other NGOs (Non
Government Organizations) are doing work to educate people about AIDS.
 Infection with HIV or having AIDS is something that should not be hidden since then, the
infection may spread to many more people. HIV/AIDS infected people need help and sympathy
instead of being shunned by society.

8.4. CANCER:-
Rapid uncontrolled mitotic cell division of certain cells leads to the
formation of an abnormal growth or tumor is called as Cancer.
CHARACTERS OF CANCER CELL (MYELOMA CELLS):-
 One of the most important characters of the cancer cell is their rapid uncontrolled mitotic cell.
division. This property is called as Neoplasia, which leads to tumors.
 They exhibit Anaplasia. i.e. Lack of cell differentiation.
 There is no contact inhibition of mitosis.( Normal cells when contact with surrounding
cell stop exhibit mitotic cell division is called contact inhibition)
 They are Invasive in nature i.e. they can move in Blood, lymph and other inter cellular
fluids.
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  They are Metastatic in nature i.e. Cancer cells can move from one organ to another organs
and leads to secondary tumors.
 They are Immortal in nature. i.e. Cancer cells never die.
TUMORS: Cancerous cell just continue to divide giving rise to masses of cell
called tumor.
All cancers are tumors but all tumors are not cancers.
TYPES OF TUMORS:-There are two types of tumors
 Benign tumor.
 Malignant tumor.
Differences between Benign tumor and malignant tumor:
Benign tumor. Malignant tumor.
1. It is a non cancerous tumor. It is cancerous tumor.
2. Normally confined to their original They spread to other parts of the body.
location.
3. They never exhibit metastasis. They exhibit metastasis.
4. They causes little damage hence are not They causes damages to the surrounding
fatal. tissues or organs hence are fatal.
A. CAUSES OF CANCER:-Though exact cause for cancer is not known, but the agents that cause
cancer are called as carcinogens. There are three types of carcinogens namely
 Physical carcinogens.
 Chemical carcinogens.
 Biological carcinogens.
1. Physical carcinogens: It includes ionizing radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and non
ionizing radiations like UV rays, radioactive substances, exposed to human skin leads to cancer.
2. Chemical carcinogens: It includes Poly cyclic hydrocarbons, smoke- tar, Mineral oils,
arsenic, nitrobenzene, Chromium, led oxide, nicotine, excess alcoholism, birth control pills and
mustard gases. These agents usually cause lung, throat, liver and blood cancer.
3. Biological carcinogens: Some of the antibody producing cells acts as cancerous cells.
 Some of the cancer causing viruses (oncogenic virus) have viral onco genes, like
Hepatitis-B (HBV)(liver cancer), Herpes virus(HV) (cervix cancer),Rous sarcoma virus(RSV)
causes blood cancer.
 Several genes called cellular oncogenes(c-onc) or proto oncogenes present in the
body cells which gets activated under the influence of certain environmental factors.
B. SYMPTOMS OF CANCER:- Fever. Night sweating, Tiredness, Constant headache, Bleeding in the
gums, Pain in the joints and bones, Swelling of lymph nodes, Loss of weight, Blood vomiting,
Persistent coughs etc
C. DETECTION OF CANCER:-
 Blood test (counting of total number of WBC’s in the blood.
 Bone marrow biopsy and histopathalogical studies of the tissues and blood in leukemia.
 CT (computerized tomography) scan.
 Radiography (use of X-rays)
 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
 Monograph.
 Monoclonal antibodies (Antibodies against cancer –specific antigens are used for detection of
certain cancer).
D. TREATMENT OF CANCER:-
 Surgical removal of primary tumor stage.
 Radiation therapy(In radiation therapy tumor cells are irradiated lethally, taking proper care
of the normal healthy tissues surrounding the tumor).

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  Chemotherapy (Certain chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancerous cells).
 Since tumors are not detected by immune system the patients are given some substances called
α–interferons they are biological response modifiers, which activates our immune system and
which destroy the tumors.
 Immunotherapy.
8.5. DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE:-
 Drugs are the chemicals which are used to cure diseases and infections for medical purpose.
 Drug abuse: Drugs are taken non medical purpose to stimulate physical, physiological and
psychological functions of the body under consciousness are called as Drug abuse.
 Drug addiction: Excess Drugs are taken non medical purpose to stimulate physical,
physiological and psychological functions of the body under without consciousness is called as
Drug addiction.
 The most common types of drugs used as abuse or addiction are OPIOID, COCAINE,
CANNABINOIDS, SEDATIVES AND LSD.
 . Majority of these drugs are obtained from flowering plants. Some are obtained from
fungi.
A. OPIOIDS:-
 They are also called as Opiate narcotics, are the drugs derived from dried latex of unripe
capsular fruits of poppy plant (Papaver somniferum).
 Along with their synthetic relatives are called opioids or opiates.
 Opioids bind to specific opioid receptors present in our central nervous system and gastro
intestinal tract.
 They are also called pain killers.(used mainly during surgery) Opiates have narcotic,
analgesic, astringent (that causes contraction of body parts) and sedative effect.
Types of opiate narcotics:-
1. Natural opiates.(naturally occurring)EX: Opium, Morphine and Codeine
Opiumis extracted from latex of poppy plant in which morphineis isolated which is used as
pain killers and also as sedatives.
2. Semi synthetic opiates (naturally occurring and processed)EX: Heroin(di acetyl
morphine) (smack).
Heroin is commonly called as smack (di acetyl morphine) which is white odorless,
bitter crystalline compound and is obtained from acetylation of morphine. It is usually taken
orally or snorting or injection. It is also called a depressant and slow down the body functions
which leads to low BP and most dangerous.
3. Synthetic opiates( artificially synthesized): EX: Pethidine and Methadone

B. CANNABINOIDS COMPOUNDS:-
 Hemp or cannabis compounds obtained from leaves, resin and flowering tops
(inflorescence) of hemp or Cannabis sativa are called Cannabinoids.
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  The flower tops, leaves and resin of Cannabis plant are used in various combinations to produce
hashish (resin), ganja(inflorescences), bhang/charas (dried leaves) and
marijuana(flower top).
 These interact with cannabinoids receptors present principally in the brain.
 These are usually taken inhalation or orally and effects on cardiovascular system of the body.
 These days, cannabinoids are being abused by some sportspersons. Which is
banned and they have to go for dope test.

C. COCAINE (COCA ALKALOID):-

 Cocaine is natural coca alkaloid obtained from leaves of coca plant Erythroxylum coca,
native to South America.
 It is commonly called coke or crack.
 Cocaine has vasoconstrictor properties and therefore, is a good local anesthetic. It is
chewed, eaten or sniffed in its powered form or taken as a drink.
 It is a powerful CNS stimulant (interferes with the transport of the neurotransmitter
dopamine) and induces a sense of well being and pleasure and delays fatigue. Its overdose causes
hallucinations.
 Cause sense of euphoria and increased energy.
 Other well known plants like Atropa belladonna and Datura also used as Hallucinogens.
 Importance of drugs in medical purpose: Drugs like barbiturates , amphetamines,
benzodiazepines, lysergic acid diethyl amides (LSD), and other similar drugs, that are normally
used as medicines to help patients cope with mental illness like depression and insomnia, are
often abused

TOBACCO ABUSE:-
 Tobacco is obtained from tobacco plant (Nicotiana tobaccum)i.e. leaf extract is used for this
purpose.
 Tobacco is used as smoking, chewing and snuffing.

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 Its main stimulating component is a poisonous, volatile alkaloid nicotine, Other harmful
components of tobacco smoke besides the poisonous nicotine are carbon monoxide,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and tar.
EFFECT OF TOBACCO:-
 These causes addiction. High concentration of nicotine paralyses nerve cells, stimulates adrenal
gland to produce more adrenalin and non-adrenalin which increases blood pressure and
also increase heart beat rate leads to cardiac diseases and also nerve diseases.
 Smoking associated with urinary bladder, throat cancer, Bronchitis, Emphysema, Coronary heart
diseases, Gastric ulcer etc.
 Smoking leads to lung cancer which leads to death.
 Tobacco chewing leads to throat and gum cancer.
 Tobacco leads to Increase in CO content in the blood which reduces Oxygen carrying capacity of
haemoglobin.

ADOLESCENCE AND DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE:-

 Adolescence means both ‘a period’ and ‘a process’ during which a child become mature in
terms of his/ her attitudes and beliefs for effective participation in society.
 The period between 12 – 18 years of age may be thought of as adolescence period. And a
connecting bridge between child wood and adult wood.
 Adolescence is the most vulnerable period for being addicted to drugs.
 An adolescent can fall easy prey to drugs, tobacco and alcohol. The various reasons are curiosity,
experimentation, adventure and excitement, group or peer pressure, feeling of independence,
overcoming frustration and depression and unsupportive family structure.
ADDICTION AND DEPENDENCE:-
 ADDICTION: Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects –
such as euphoria and a temporary feeling of well being associated with
drugs and alcohol.
 These drive people to take them even when these are not needed, or even when their use becomes
self destructive.
 Thus, the addictive potential of drugs and alcohol, pull the user into a vicious circle leading to
their regular use (abuse) from which he/she may not be able to get out.
DEPENDENCE: Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant
withdrawal syndrome (severe physical and physiological disturbances that
occur on stopping intake of a drug) if regular dose of drugs or alcohol is abruptly
discontinued. It is characterized by anxiety, nausea, shakiness etc.

EFFECTS / SYMPTOMS OF DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE:-

 Reckless behavior, vandalism and violence.
 Excessive doses of drugs may leads to coma and death due to respiratory failure , heart failure or
cerebral hemorrhage.
 Effect of drugs and alcohol on youth:-
 Drop of academic performance.
 Unexplained absence from school/college.
 Lack of interest in personal hygiene.
 Withdrawal, isolation, depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behaviour.
 Deteriorating relationship with family and friends.
 Loss of interest in hobbies.
 Changing sleeping and eating habits.
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  In sever drug abuse cases he/she may stealing money to buy drugs.
 Effect of intravenously drugs intake:-
 Disturbed peristalsis and secretion of digestive enzymes.
 Taking of drugs intravenously may spread the serious infections like AIDS and hepatitis B
due to sharing of infected needles and syringes.
 Effects of alcohol abuse:-
 Affect liver and kidneys as they become involved metabolism and elimination of their
products. This is not their normal function. They, therefore, become damaged. The damaged
liver undergoes cirrhosis.
 Effects of drugs/alcohol on sportsperson:-
 Another misuse of drugs is that certain sportspersons do to enhance their performance, by use
of analgesics increase the strength of muscle contraction.
 Effects of drugs on females:-
 Excess use of anabolic steroids in female includes masculinisation ( male like features).
 Abnormal menstrual cycle, aggressiveness, excessive hairs, muscular organization etc.
 Enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice etc.
 Effects of drugs on males:-
 Increased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, lack of interest on family.
 Reduction of size of the testicles, decrease production of sperms, breast enlargement,
premature baldness, enlargement of prostate gland etc.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL:-
 AVOID UNDUE PRESSURE:-No child should be asked to perform beyond threshold limits
whether in studies, sports or extracurricular activities.
 EDUCATION AND COUNSELING:- For problems faced by the child, help should be sought
from teachers, trusted friends, family members and even peers.
 SEEKING HELP FROM PARENTS AND RELATIVES:-Parents should always be
careful to look for and identify danger signs that can indicate tendency to go in for addiction.
 SEEKING PROFESSIONAL AND MEDICAL HELP:-Psychologists, psychiatrists,
deaddiction and rehabilitation specialists are available to help individuals who fall in trap of drug,
tobacco or alcohol abuse. Friends and family members should be considerate to affected
individual and help the person to gain will power and come out of the problem permanently.
 LOOKING FOR DANGER SIGNS:-Alert parents and teachers need to look for and identify
the danger signs discussed above, even friends, if they find someone using drugs or alcohol,
should not hesitate to bring to the notice of parents or teachers in the best interest of the person
concerned.
June 26 is observed as International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking.

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 Assignments
I. ONE MARK QUESTIONS:- 40. Write a note on cellular barriers of innate
1. Define Health. immunity.
1. Name the pathogen which causes typhoid. 41. What is innate immunity? Mention any two
2. What is widal test? (MARCH-2016) types of innate immunity barriers (MARCH-
3. Name the parasite of malaria which is vital. 2018)
4. What is Haemozoin? 42. Write two differences between B and T
5. Write the infectious form of plasmodium lymphocytes.
which enter human body through mosquito 43. Which drug is very useful in patients who
(MARCH-2019). (March-2023) have undergone surgery? And why? .
6. Write the name of toxic substance (MARCH-2025)
responsible for fever and chill in Malaria 44. Write any two differences between Humoral
(MARCH-2018) immunity and cell mediated immunity.
7. Name the causative organisms for 45. Write the differences between passive
Amoebiosis. immunity and active immunity. (MARCH-
8. Name the causative organisms for Filariasis. 2014)
9. Name the disease in which internal bleeding, 46. Write the mechanism of vaccination.
muscular pain, fever, Anemia etc. 47. What are primary lymphoid organs? Give
10. Name the type of antibodies produced during one example. (MAY-2022)
allergy. (MARCH-2018) 48. What is allergy? Name the chemicals
11. Name the pathogen which causes ringworms. responsible for allergy . (MARCH-2019)
12. Define immunity. 49. Write any four methods of HIV mode of
13. Expand PMNL. transmission.
14. Name any one cellular barriers. 50. Write the differences between Benign tumors
15. What are interferons? and Malignant tumors. (MARCH-2015)
16. What is primary response? 51. Write any four properties of cancer.
17. Define passive immunity. 52. Write any four methods of cancer
18. Define active immunity. treatment(MAY-2022)
19. Give one example for passive immunity. 53. Sketch the diagramatic representation of
20. What is vaccine? replication of retruovirus inside an animal
21. What is allergy? (MARCH-2014) cell. (MARCH-2018)
22. Name the antibody causes allergy. (MARCH- 54. Name the two forms of opioids and mention
2018) one function each.
23. Name the cell which causes allergy. 55. Name the four forms of cannabinoids.
24. What is auto-immunity? 56. Draw a neat labeled diagram of antibody
25. Expand MALT. molecule (MARCH-2016). (MARCH-2020)
26. Name the enzyme in which HIV genome (March-2023)
replicates in the host cell. (MARCH-2016) 57. Write any four effects of alcohol on body.
27. What is metastasis property of cancer? 58. Write any effects of tobacco on body.
28. Name the plant which produces opium. III.THREE MARKS QUESTIONS:
29. Name the plant which produces cocaine. 59. Write causative organism, infected organ,
(MARCH-2015) mode of transmission and control measures
30. Name the plant which produces cannabinoid. of Pneumonia.
31. Name the drug which interfers with the 60. Write causative organism, infected organ,
transport of the neuro-transmitter dopamine. mode of transmission and control measures
32. What is withdrawal syndrome? of Amoebic dysentery.
33. What is Drug abuse? 61. Mention the three types of innate immunity
34. What is Drug addiction? with suitable example each(MARCH-2015)
35. What is drug dependence? (MARCH-2018)
36. Write an example for auto immune diseases. 62. What are lymphoid organ ?mention their
(MAY-2022) types with examples each.
37. Name the scientific name of the plant from 63. Mention the three characters of cancer cells.
which coca alkaloid is obtained(MAY-2022) (MARCH-2016)
II. TWO MARKS QUESTIONS: 64. Write a note on carcinogens.with examples
38. Write a note on common cold. each. (MARCH-2017) (MARCH-2019) (MARCH-
39. Write the two possible types of pathogens 2025)
which causes ringworm. 65. Define immunity and Name two different
types of immunity (MARCH-2020)
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 66. Write the mechanism of allergy. b)Epidermophyton
IV.FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS: c)Salmonella typhi
67. Explain the life cycle of malaria with d)Wuchereria malayi
schematic representation. (MAY-2022) e) Plasmodium vivax(March-2023)
68. Explain the structure of antibody with
suitable diagram.
69. Explain the life cycle of HIV in TH cells with
suitable diagram.
70. “Our body is provided with different types of
non-specific immunity barriers at the time of
birth” justify the above statement with
suitable examples. (MARCH-2025)
71. Explain any five prevention and control of
drug addiction in adolescence. (MARCH-2014)
72. Name the disease caused by following
organisms
a) Enatamoeba histolytica

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