CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Elections, globally, are deeply rooted in the concept of representative democracy,

consisting of four key elements. These are: choosing and replacing governments, active

participations of citizens in politics and civil life, protection of human rights of citizens

and a society governed by a rule of law which applies to every citizen irrespective of their

social standing, with the right to vote and be voted for (Mathenjwa, 2017). The entire

electoral process and political parties, provide the platform for citizens to make their

voices heard. Through this platform individual interest groups also assume positions of

power in a peaceful way (Agu et al., 2013).

Communication has always played a central role in elections, with the media of

communication serving as the major platform for this crucial role. In this process, the

media becomes the opinion molders and tool for social mobilization in order to ensure

full citizen participation. In addition, the media provide insightful reports, analyses and

comments about not only the process, but also the active participants in elections such as

the candidates of political parties, and more importantly the content of their manifestoes

(Dauda, 2010; Okoro, & Nwafor, 2013).

The powerful role and influence of the media are predicated on their character and

capacity to communicate with mass audiences in diverse places in real time. Apart from

both the print and electronic media, the social medias a communication tool has in no

small ways reinvented the way communication is done during elections. Not only has it
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become an indispensable platform for political parties, politicians now use it extensively

to further their political interests.

These social media platforms include WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter,

Blogs and Vlogs, among others, which are the favorites of the younger generation who

are the most ardent users (Omotayo and Folorunsho, 2020; Ezike, et al., 2016).

Social media are well-liked hubs for social interaction that produce material

created by users. As such, they have a significant and lasting impact on their users. Using

a variety of social networking sites and platforms, social media are news forms that allow

their consumers to engage in online social interaction (Ahmed & Aondover, 2022). Via

online networks, social media makes it easier to share knowledge and concepts. Social

media is a wide range of applications and platforms that let people share material,

communicate online, and create communities. Examples of these include Facebook,

Instagram, Twitter, and YouTube. The 2015, 2019, and 2023 elections in Nigeria saw a

significant change in the political involvement and participations. Users' political

attitudes and involvement have changed as a result of the use of social media platforms

by individuals, political parties, and organizations. These platforms include Facebook,

YouTube, Twitter, and WhatsApp, which have made it easier for people to share political

information.

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Social media are well-liked hubs for social interaction that produce material

created by users. As such, they have a significant and lasting impact on their users. Using
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a variety of social networking sites and platforms, social media are news forms that allow

their consumers to engage in online social interaction (Ahmed & Aondover, 2022). Via

online networks, social media makes it easier to share knowledge and concepts. Social

media is a wide range of applications and platforms that let people share material,

communicate online, and create communities. Examples of these include Facebook,

Instagram, Twitter, and YouTube. The 2015, 2019, and 2023 elections in Nigeria saw a

significant change in the political involvement and participations. Users' political

attitudes and involvement have changed as a result of the use of social media platforms

by individuals, political parties, and organizations. These platforms include Facebook,

YouTube, Twitter, and WhatsApp, which have made it easier for people to share political

information.

Aondover et al., (2022) observed that social media has become a powerful social

and political force in society. This has been made possible by contemporary

developments in Information and Communication Technology (ICT), which have further

propelled a paradigm shift in the manner of information dissemination and social

interaction across all institutions of society. In today's interconnected world, social media

has become an integral part of our daily lives, transforming the way we communicate,

conduct business, discuss politics, and share our culture. Its impact is undeniable and has

the potential to shape political participation in significant ways.

The rapid development of social media has brought about major changes in how

people find and connect with individuals who share similar interests. During the last

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general elections, numerous celebrities, including Peter Obi and Bola Tinubu, leveraged

their social media presence to engage with voters and influence their choices and

directions. This demonstrates the power social media platforms hold in shaping political

discourse and decision-making (Aondover et al., 2023) Moreover, the nature of

information dissemination has been profoundly impacted by social media. Social media

also play a key role in businesses' marketing strategies given the sheer amount of time

individuals spend each day on social platforms and apps. It can also collect information

helps businesses to fine-tune their marketing campaigns and conduct market research. It

helps companies promote products and services as it enables the distribution of targeted,

timely, and exclusive sales and coupons to potential customers. Further, social media can

help build customer relationships (Hile et al., 2023) However, it is crucial to recognize

that social media's impact on political participation is not limited to positive outcomes.

There are challenges and concerns associated with the interaction between social media

and general elections. One significant concern is the spread of misinformation and fake

news, social media is now an essential component of communication and public

discourse in society because to its widespread use (Aondover & Pate, 2021).

Additionally, privacy and data security have emerged as prominent concerns.

Social media platforms collect vast amounts of personal data, raising questions about

how this data is used and protected. The misuse or mishandling of personal information

can undermine trust in social media platforms and discourage users from actively

participating in political conversations (Aondover et al., 2022).

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 Considering these complex dynamics, it is essential to investigate the relationship

between social media usage and political participation in the context of the 2023 General

Election in Lagos State. By understanding the impact of social media on political

engagement, we can identify the challenges and opportunities it presents and develop

strategies to maximize its positive effects while mitigating its negative aspects.

This study aims to shed light on the role of social media in shaping the political

landscape of Oyo State during the 2023 general election. At its core, politics embodies

the dynamic and intricate tapestry of actions, initiatives, and strategic maneuvers

undertaken to govern and shape the destiny of a nation, state, or any political entity. It

epitomizes the art of decision-making and power distribution, intricately woven with the

noble purpose of enhancing the well-being of an entire community.

Apart from this election still determines the composition of the government, it

provides ways and platforms for the citizens to prefer the party which they want to see at

the position of power (Kurfi et al., 2021).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Concerns over how and for what social and political purposes young people use

media are growing as digital media has become more commonplace (Abdulyakeen &

Yusuf, 2022). According to Howell (2013), there is special interest in learning how civic

engagement, knowledge, and involvement are fostered through participation in internet

mediated environments. Driven by the necessity for social connections in a mixed

economy and the quick transition to a capitalist economic system, social media
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democratises and empowers human relations and draws support from people,

governments, and businesses (Abdulyakeen & Yusuf, 2022).

Nigerian politics have become even more “mediatized” as a result of politicians

using the internet to interact with their constituents (Ajayi & Adesote, 2015). There has

been a notable rise in online and offline violent extremism all over the world, as the

advent of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Instagram, etc.

have given rise to new problems as it concerns online hate comments (Abdulyakeen &

Yusuf, 2022). Bartlett and Reynolds (2015) contend that violent extremists now

effectively further their objectives by using social media platforms. They employ radical

messaging in the media to sway young people in order to spread their harmful ideology

and attract new members (Van Ginkel, 2015).

The importance of social media cannot be overemphasized, as it has become a tool

for political mobilization and altering public opinion and sentiments. Realizing the

effectiveness of this medium, some Nigerian politicians quickly adopted and exploited it

extensively for their political campaigns in the 2015 and 2019 general elections

(Abdulyakeen & Yusuf, 2022).

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To examine the technologies used in political participation on social media in the

2023 general elections in Oyo State.

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2. To ascertain if social media facilitate the dissemination of political information in

Oyo State during the 2023 general elections.

3. To find out if social media usage influences the political awareness and

engagement of voters in Oyo State during the 2023 general elections.

4. To discover the challenges in the use of social media for political participation in

the 2023 general elections in Oyo State

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study is guided by the research questions thus:

i. What is the extent of social media usage for political participation during the

2023 gubernatorial campaign in Oyo State?

ii. ii. How did social media enhance political participation in the 2023

gubernatorial campaign in Oyo State?

iii. iii. What were the challenges of social media usage for political participation

during the 2023 gubernatorial campaign in Oyo State?

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

(i) Social media had no significant influence on voter engagement of the Labour

Party in the 2023 general elections in Nigeria.

(ii) (ii) Social media had no significant influence on public perception of the

Labour Party in the 2023 general elections in Nigeria.

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 (iii) (iii) Social media had no significant influence on voter behaviour towards the

Labour Party in the 2023 general elections in Nigeria

1.6 THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study is limited to the social media activities as it relates to the 28March 2023

governorship election. Though many parties were accredited by the Independent National

Electoral Commission to stand the election, the parties of interest in this work are the two

runner up parties which were APC and PDP and their presidential candidates. Majorly,

the study centers around the social media of Whatsapp with very minimum links on other

social media networks.

The study is concerned with the online activities in Twitter and Facebook between

the periods of 1st August 2014 up till 30th of April 2015 pertaining the election. It takes

in consideration Facebook chats, tweet updates, video uploads, voice notes, news flashes

and new headlines centering on electoral discussions, the candidates political affairs, the

parties activities in preparation and anticipation of the 2023 governorship elections. Data

considered viable include views, opinions, debates, reactions and counter reactions of

Nigerian social media populace in respect to the political parties of PDP and APC and

their Presidential Candidates.

1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The primary limitation of this study is that, the investigation is based on third

party point of view, entailing that since the study wasn’t conducted during the period of

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the election and data not adduced directly from the scene, the authenticity of the date

available about it in the internet is not guaranteable, as it may have undergone some form

of adulteration within the gap of when recorded and now the research is being conducted.

Also the objectivity of the researcher's positions on the findings of the investigation is not

guaranteed as there are chances of researcher's bias interference in the course of

interpreting the findings of this study and the drawing of an objective conclusion.

Furthermore, human behavior being the object matter of this research cannot be subjected

to lab experiment, thus is unpredictable and subject to change, therefore conclusions

drawn based on the findings of this investigation if implemented in a future similar, but

different case may fail to yield the same results.

There is also time and money constrictions which made the researcher to limit the

data source to just secondary sources within his disposal.

The data generated in the course of this investigation may not be representative of the

positions of every electorate on social media as it was not adduced directly from the

participants.

1.8 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Social Media: Social media refers to a collection of internet-based platforms and

technologies that enable individuals and organizations to create, share, and interact with

content, information, and other users.

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Mobilization: In this study, political mobilization refers to the various activities and

means by which individuals especially people who are 18+ in Nigeria to take part in

politics.

General Election: This refers to the recent February 2023 general election held in

Nigeria that was keenly contested by the trio of APC, PDP and LP.

Participation: This is a political process of participating in 2023 general election such as

voting, joining political parties, running for office, activism and advocacy, volunteering

in political campaigns.

Politics: In this research, it means all the activities, actions, and policies used to gain and

hold power in a government or to influence the government which include voting,

participating in political campaigns, serving as polling agent among others.

Whatsapp: The name "WhatsApp" is a playful pun combining the common greeting

"What's up?" with "app," short for application. It refers to the free, cross-platform mobile

messaging and calling app developed by WhatsApp Inc. The app allows users to send

text, photos, videos, and voice messages, and to make voice and video calls over the

internet, using cellular data or Wi-Fi.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 SOCIAL MEDIA

Social media is an evolution of the internet which was initially created as a

channel or medium to exchange information between the users (Kietzmann, Hermkens,

McCarthy, and Silvestre, 2011). Networking dates back to the 1980s with the name of

Bulletin Board Systems (BBS). This BBS permitted the users the software and data that

is shared and also allowed them to send messages from one individual to another

(private) and messages that can be posted on public boards (Zarrella, 2009).

Social Media can be defined as online resources that people use to share content

such as videos, photos, images, text, ideas, insight, and opinions (Janusz, 2019).

According to Acar and Polonsky (2017), social media sites allow users to participate in

social media promoting the contribution and feedback from the users who are interested

in participating while social media channels are open for comments no matter what the

opinion. The conversation is the basis for developing a community and that is what social

media channels provide, open communication. Communication Expert Joseph Thornley

(2008) noted that social media is an online communication in which individuals shift

fluidly and flexibly between the role of audience and author.

To do this, they use social software that enables anyone without knowledge of

coding, to post comment on, share or mash up content and to form communities around

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shared interests. Simply put, social media is an umbrella term used to describe the various

types of internet-based applications that lend themselves to content creation sharing,

exchange, collaboration and social networking within a website.

Yang, Kim, and Dhalwani (2018) highlight the various forms of social media as

collaborative projects (eg Wikipedia), blogs and microblogs (eg Twitter), content

communities (eg YouTube, Picasso), social networking sites (eg Facebook, MySpace),

virtual game worlds (eg world of warcraft) and virtual social worlds (eg second life).

The AP Stylebook (2013) has a slightly different categorization of social media as:

blogs, social networking sites, microblogging sites, wikis, content sharing sites, online

forums, check-in services and all sorts of other sites. Singh and Sinha (2017) noted that

irrespective of the categorizations, social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter,

Instagram, YouTube, WhatsApp, MySpace, LinkedIn, and Vine have become quite

popular, especially among the youth who utilize them to socialise, network, mobilise, for

entertainment purposes amongst other uses. Although social media platforms can be

accessed via the web (e.g. desktop computers, and laptops) they are mainly accessed via

mobile devices like cell phones, tablets, and iPods. According to Facebook’s 3rd quarter

(2015) report, over 70% per cent of total Facebook active users access it through mobile

devices.

The numbers are growing for Facebook and it’s from mobile. To bring it home,

the same Facebook report reveals that 15 million Nigerians access the website via mobile

devices monthly. In essence, the compatibility of social media with mobile internet is a

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key advantage which dovetails neatly with the ever-mobile lifestyle of the youth and

working-class adults. Social network sites can be attractive channels for various

activities, as they are organized around people and their relationships and they allow

people of various interests to engage in some form of social interaction via comments and

sharing (Ridings, Gefen, and Arinze, 2018).

Through such communication, people voluntarily display their preferences and

potentially influence their personal or brand awareness and image. Hence, members on

social network sites can create and disseminate brand-related information to their social

networks composed of friends and other acquaintances (Ridings, et al, 2018). On social

network sites, consumers are given the power to filter, choose, and exchange information

with one another or with the company (Deighton, Henderson, & Neslin, 2017). As a

result of this participatory media, the audience is not simply a receiver of media content

but also a simultaneous creator of content. Consumers have as much power as the

advertiser in determining the message and the cultural meaning of the brand (Deighton, et

al, 2017). Social media has made life easier as organizations, groups, individuals, and

entrepreneurs can improve their products with the help of comments people but at the

same time, people can destroy the goodwill of the company’s products (goods and

services) to boost their rival’s products (goods and services) through bad review

(Papasolomou & Melanthiou, 2018).

Evans (2019) avers that social media plays another important role by bringing

innovation to businesses and products. The use of social media gives new thoughts and

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ideas to discover new horizons of products through new technologies and other

experiments according to their target audience or stakeholders’ demands.

2.2 Social Media and Political Polarization

While social media connects individuals, it has also been associated with the

intensification of political polarization, users may be exposed to extremist viewpoints,

which can reinforce ideological divisions and hinder constructive dialogue, and this

polarization may influence how individuals engage with political content and interact

with those holding different opinions (Yar’Adua et al., 2023).

The 2023 general election in Nigeria saw a new dimension different from the

usual, due to the active role of social media. This implies that a good number of

Nigerians have now tapped into different social media platforms. The media platforms

has been identified as a key factor that has changed the way politics and elections used to

be, bringing everyone together to participate and share their opinion freely (Mojaye &

Aondover, 2022).

However, there are about 32.9 active social media users in Nigeria (Onyejelem &

Aondover, 2024), a Lagos-based Digital Marketer said the just concluded election was a

complete testament of what social media can do and how it can keep everyone involved.

Social media has become a more comfortable platform for campaigns and the best

medium to engage Nigerians especially the youths. People were more enlightened on the

new electoral act even before the election. Even people that don’t vote and haven’t been

voting got motivated through speculations from social media. It gave room for
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sensitization on PVC, it opened a public space for election monitoring and sharing of

information while opening a wider view for users’ opinion both those in Nigeria and

diaspora.

Onyejelem and Aondover (2024) also state that social media also led to the

emergence of more online political groups and pages which are regarded as Structure,

making it possible for online meetings from any location thereby giving opportunities for

people’s opinion and involvement in politics. He said: “The just concluded election was

an eye opener on Social Media power.

A lot of information was possible to get and made public both positive and

negative. Many attitudes were seen and reported by individuals. Election results were

captured and reported boot by boot from individuals willingly through social media. We

were able to follow the trends as it was all reported by individuals for public notice.

According to Mojaye and Aondover (2022) social media platforms offer a platform for

people to voice their perspectives and interact with others, yet they also foster echo

chambers and filter bubbles that expose users predominantly to content that aligns with

and also social media limit the information that users encounter or consume online.

This selective exposure reinforces ideological divides and obstructs constructive

discourse among individuals holding contrasting viewpoints. The algorithms driving

social media prioritize content that evokes intense emotional reactions or engagement,

thereby propagating sensationalist or extremist opinions. Consequently, this amplification

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of the most extreme voices accentuates polarization, deepening divisions within a

particular political spectrum (Yar’Adua et al., 2021).

The consequence is a digital milieu characterized by animosity, impeding genuine

comprehension and collaborative resolution. While social media's potential to unite

individuals and facilitate political involvement is evident, it confronts the formidable

challenge of nurturing polarization and impeding substantive dialogues between

individuals harboring distinct political convictions and also offers a direct connection to

people and thus allows for the spread of fragmented ideas.

Social Media Social media are “internet-based applications that allow the creation

and exchange of content which is user generated,” (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). They

stated that the earliest social media platforms were presented in 1979 by Tom Truscott

and Jim Ellis of Duke University, who built the worldwide discussion system Usenet, and

in 1998 by Bruce and Susan Abelson, who started “Open Diary.”

Social media refers to online resources and applications that let people interact,

create, share, and look for information. They provide people a chance to interact and

exchange ideas, viewpoints, contacts, information, and experience. They are a part of a

new wave of media that centres on social networking, giving users more freedom to

express themselves, engage with friends, exchange information, and voice their opinions

on the internet (John & Ibe, 2020). These technologies are social because of their

collaborative or interactive features (Chatora, 2012).

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 The advent of the internet and the World Wide Web gave rise to social media,

often known as “web 2.0” websites that let users communicate with message senders

(John & Ibe, 2020). These media are defined by Mayfield (2008) as “online platforms

that promote participation, openness, conversation, and connectedness.”Adibe,

Odoemelam, and Orji (2012) highlight online content created using accessible and

scalable publishing technologies, which promotes interaction and democratization of

knowledge, making people both information producers and consumers. Nwabueze (2012)

notes that whereas “web 1.0” refers to the status of the web before 2004, “Web 2.0”

refers to the condition of the web from 2004 to the present, a period during which

interactive websites arose. Web based communities, social networking sites video-

sharing, sites, Wikis, and blogs, are examples of web 2.0 sites (Allen et al., 2011).

2.3 POLITICAL MOBILIZATION

Political mobilization in its strictest definition, refers to the process of creating

collective actors and identities (Martiniello, 2005). According to Verba, Schlozman and

Brady (1995), mobilization “have multiple meanings and, therefore, might lead to

misunderstanding concerning the process we are discussing”. The deliberate process of

involving citizens in politics is often referred to as political mobilization, and it manifests

itself in member recruiting.

A democratic society must prioritize political mobilization, which is thought to be

a critical function best carried out by the mobilization function, expanding Lasswell’s

stance. According to the fundamental principles of the theory, people are drawn to a

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certain sort of informational media because it is easy to access and because they are

satisfied with the particular content that reaches them. Additionally, users at all levels

engage in chosen processes of initiative. According to Katz et al.,(1974),

“Uses and Gratifications theory asserts that people are active users of media and

select how they will use it”. This theory adopts a functionalistic approach to

communications and media, contending that media’s primary job is to satisfy audience

needs and motives (Mehrad & Tajer, 2016).

The theory focuses on audience motifs and analyses message and social system,

analysing users’ media seeker behaviour and satisfaction with its type, content, and

method of use (Mehrad & Tajer, 2016). Two major questions form the basis of the

theory: 1) why are people attracted to certain media? and 2) what kind of satisfaction

does media provide for people? (Mehrad & Tajer, 2016).

The two questions posed in “Use and Gratification” will eventually define the

benefits and drawbacks of using particular media opined Balakrishnan and Loo (2012),

hence the relevance of this theory to the study.

The question in Katz (1959) is not, “What do the media do to people?” but rather

“What do people do with the media?” According to the Uses and Gratification theory, the

audience is crucial and determines what is desired from the medium in all cases (Egede &

Chuks-Nwosu, 2013). Various criticisms of Uses and Gratification exist, particularly with

its excessive presumptions, which Wimmer and Dominick (1994) identified as individual

media choices, expectancies resulting from personal traits, social interactions, and
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environmental influences. Cooper (1997) notes that communication researchers see the

individual-level impact of media as a limited effect perspective, meaning that media only

reinforces preexisting attitudes and behaviours. This is consistent with Klapper’s minimal

effects position (Klapper, 1960).

Encouragement from supporters may strengthen the political beliefs and activities

of the Obidient Movement, strengthening their commitment to the cause and fostering a

sense of community (Agbim, et al., 2023). The theory explicitly gives users direct

authority, which makes it easy to deduce how citizens were mobilized via social media to

join the obidient movement. Most of the early researchers made little attempt to

investigate the connections between the gratifications detected and the psychological or

sociological origins of the needs satisfied (Ruggiero, 2000). By using this theory to

analyse the obidient movement, we can comprehend how and why social media aided the

obidient movement in political mobilization, as well as to share their opinions with a

wider audience, and have an influence on policy deliberations and public discourse.

2.4 Impact of Social Media on Political Awareness

Social media platforms have significantly impacted political awareness by

providing a fast and accessible channel for citizens to engage with political issues,

candidates, and election processes. Political awareness plays a pivotal role in the

preparation and rehabilitation of understanding the plans, objectives, systems, public

policies of the political party, and the participation in improving them”.

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 In today's digital age, social media platforms have become powerful tools that

facilitate the dissemination of information, promote discussions, and foster engagement

on a wide array of political matters. These platforms have revolutionized the way citizens

interact with the political landscape, offering a dynamic and accessible channel through

which people can explore and participate in various aspects of the political sphere

(Msughter, 2023).

Through the real-time sharing of news articles, videos, and political content,

social media instantaneous flow of information empowers citizens to remain up-to-date

with the latest political serves as an effective vehicle for staying informed about current

events and developments. Occurrences ensuring that they are well-informed participants

in the democratic process. Moreover, social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook,

and Instagram have reshaped the relationship between citizens and political candidates.

By providing a direct line of communication, candidates can share their views, policies,

and respond to inquiries from the public. This new found transparency enhances

accessibility, allowing constituents to interact with candidates on a more personal level

(Ahmed & Aondover, 2022).

Citizens themselves have become content creators on these platforms, generating

and sharing political content that can quickly gain traction and raise awareness about

specific issues or candidates. This range of content, from informative videos to satirical

memes, has the power to spark meaningful discussions and heighten engagement among

users. Online movements and advocacy efforts have flourished in the digital realm,

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facilitated by the viral nature of hashtags, campaigns, and petitions. Social media has

proven to be a forceful tool for highlighting critical political issues and placing pressure

on authorities to address these concerns promptly and effectively. Discussion and debate

thrive on social media platforms, offering spaces where users can share their opinions and

engage with differing viewpoints. This diverse exchange of ideas cultivates a more

informed citizenry, enabling people to explore a variety of perspectives and deepen their

understanding of complex political matters.

During elections, these platforms provide real-time coverage and updates,

allowing citizens to closely follow results and analysis. This bridges the information gap

that might have existed previously, encouraging active participation and heightened

engagement with the electoral process. While social media can sometimes be a breeding

ground for misinformation, it has also given rise to fact-checking initiatives that counter

false information and promote accuracy in political discussions.

This serves as a critical component of maintaining a well-informed electorate.

Engaging younger generations in politics has been made more accessible through the

popularity of social media among this demographic. Its presence on these platforms

encourages younger citizens to develop political awareness and engagement from an

early age. Furthermore, candidates now utilize virtual town hall meetings and debates to

reach a broader audience, transcending physical limitations and enabling more citizens to

participate in political discussions. Beyond national borders, social media connects

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citizens to global political events and discussions, broadening their understanding of

international affairs and fostering a more interconnected world view.

2.5 POLITICAL CAMPAIGN STRATEGIES IN THE DIGITAL AGE

Political campaign communication has become increasingly hybrid and the ability

to create synergies between older and newer media is now a prerequisite for running a

successful campaign. In the era defined by the rapid evolution of technology, political

campaigns have embraced the digital age, reshaping their strategies to resonate with the

rhythms of social media. Candidates and parties now weave intricate webs of outreach,

leveraging the immediacy of platforms to disseminate information and spark discussions.

With a simple tap, news articles, videos, and political content surge through the digital

veins of society, ensuring citizens remain attuned to the ebb and flow of current events

(Aondover et al., 2022).

The relationship between politicians and constituents has transformed as well.

The likes of Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram have birthed a virtual agora where

politicians and the public engage in direct discourse. With a few clicks, candidates cast

their views, policies, and even personal anecdotes onto the digital stage, fostering a sense

of transparency that transcends the barriers of physicality. Yet, it's not only the

politicians' voices that reverberate across these digital plains.

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 Citizens wield their creativity to craft content that resonates with their political

affiliations. From thought-provoking videos to satirical memes, the digital canvas

becomes a mural of perspectives, sparking debates that span continents and cross

generations. Online activism thrives, hashtags becoming rallying cries that galvanize

communities and draw global attention to pressing issues. The art of discourse flourishes

as social media platforms serve as arenas where voices from diverse corners meet. Users

converge to discuss policies, share opinions, and engage in debates. This influx of

viewpoints nurtures a more informed and critical citizenry, enriching democratic

discourse.

Campaigns no longer wait for results to trickle in; social media platforms provide

live coverage of elections, allowing citizens to participate in real-time analyses. The once

formidable information gap has all but vanished, replaced by a vibrant exchange of ideas

that enriches political engagement. Yet, as with any digital advancement, pitfalls await.

The same platforms that facilitate dialogue also serve as conduits for misinformation. But

these spaces also give rise to initiatives that counter falsehoods with fact-checking. The

delicate balance between the power of information dissemination and the challenge of

accuracy continues to shape the digital political landscape (Hile et al., 2023).

From the spirited activism of the young to the virtual town hall meetings

conducted by candidates, the digital age offers new frontiers for political engagement.

Borders blur as citizens connect with global political events, broadening their

perspectives and intertwining their narratives with the tapestry of international affairs. In

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this era, where social media is a bridge to ideas, an amplifier of voices, and a catalyst for

political engagement, the strategies of political campaigns have irrevocably has injected

an element of dynamism, immediacy, and interaction into the political process, forever

altering the landscape in which politicians and voters coalesce.

2.6 ELECTION MONITORING AND TRANSPARENCY

Social media has indeed emerged as a potent tool for the monitoring of election

processes, reporting irregularities, and fostering transparency within electoral systems.

It’s realtime, accessible, and far-reaching nature has allowed platforms to become

conduits for citizens, election observers, and media outlets to actively contribute to

upholding the integrity of elections. Through these platforms, citizens can rapidly

disseminate information, sharing images, videos, and reports pertaining to election-

related events. This encourages open dialogue and swift reporting of irregularities like

voter suppression, malfunctioning voting machines, or instances of voter intimidation,

ultimately ensuring that potential violations are promptly brought to public attention.

Moreover, social media has democratized the process of vigilance, empowering ordinary

individuals armed with Smartphones to capture and broadcast incidents they personally

witness.

24
 This grassroots approach minimizes the chances of misconduct going unnoticed,

promoting both transparency and accountability.

The collective effort of this larger pool of observers further enhances the accuracy

of reported incidents, thereby reinforcing the authenticity of the information being

shared. In addition, social media serves as a direct communication channel between

official election authorities, organizations, and the general public. Election commissions

and monitoring bodies can leverage these platforms to share real-time updates on voting

processes, address concerns, and clarify misconceptions. This proactive engagement

fosters trust in the electoral system, showcasing a commitment to transparency that

resonates with the public (Kurfi et al., 2021).

However, the dynamic nature of social media also presents challenges. The rapid

propagation of unverified information and rumors can lead to confusion and

misinformation. Responsible sharing practices and source verification are vital to

counteract this phenomenon. In essence, social media functions as a bridge between

citizens and the electoral process, enabling real-time reporting, observations sharing, and

direct communication. It thereby promotes transparency and accountability within

electoral systems.

To harness its full potential, a collaborative effort involving online communities,

election authorities, and civil society is essential. This cooperative approach ensures the

accurate dissemination of information, prevents the spread of misinformation, and

upholds the overall integrity of elections. As Attahiru Jega aptly stated in 2019,

25
“Transparency is vital for the credibility of elections”. This sentiment reinforces the

significance of a transparent electoral process for maintaining public trust and a robust

democratic foundation.

2.7 ONLINE POLITICAL DISCOURSE AND ENGAGEMENT

Social media platforms have transformed the landscape of political discourse by

providing a digital arena where citizens engage in discussions, debates, and interactions.

As referenced by Mark Zuckerberg in 2019, he noted, "Giving people a voice and

enabling a vigorous exchange of ideas is important for building a more open and

informed society." This sentiment underscores how these platforms empower individuals

to share opinions, engage in conversations, and stay informed about political issues,

reshaping the nature of civic engagement. The accessibility offered by these platforms

ensures participation from diverse backgrounds, broadening the voices contributing to

political debates and engaging demographics that might not have been as active before

(Kurfi et al., 2021).

The rapid dissemination of information on social media allows citizens to

effortlessly share news, videos, and political content, accelerating the spread of

information and granting access to a variety of sources and viewpoints, thereby

enhancing overall political awareness. Engaging on social media platforms encourages a

quest for understanding, motivating individuals to explore diverse perspectives through

discussions and research, nurturing a more informed citizenry.

26
 Moreover, these platforms serve as catalysts for mobilization and activism, as

citizens unite around political causes, leveraging their collective power to organize

protests, campaigns, and petitions that amplify their impact. This digital involvement

often transitions into tangible civic participation, motivating individuals not only to

converse online but also to actively partake in offline actions such as voting and attending

town hall meetings.

The unique feedback loop facilitated by social media enables citizens to interact

directly with politicians, offering insights into public sentiment that can drive policy

adjustments and nurture a more responsive political landscape. However, the landscape is

not devoid of challenges. Social media's power to promote engagement can inadvertently

foster echo chambers, where individuals encounter information that reinforces their

preexisting beliefs, leading to polarization and impeding constructive discourse. The

speed of information dissemination on these platforms also exposes citizens to

misinformation and disinformation, potentially compromising the quality of political

discussions and citizen engagement.

2.8 Theoretical Framework

The study employed Uses and Gratification Theory, which was framed by Elihu

Katz, Jay Blumler, and Michael Gurevitch in the 1970s, Uses and Gratification Theory

turned attention away from media sources and message effects to audience uses of media

content. The uses (exposure to the media) and, gratification (benefits or gains) are

27
determined by the needs of members of the audience. Uses and Gratification is concerned

with what people do with media instead of what media do to people.

The practical use of the media is what the Uses and Gratification Theory explains.

This theory emphasizes on the reason(s) people have for engaging one medium over

another as well as the gratifications they aim to derive. Thus, youths, as the audience, are

active in the following sense. Firstly, with regards to their needs, they select the social

media platform that appeals to them. Secondly, they selectively consume the political

contents that meet their needs. Thirdly, the political content may or may not affect them.

It does, it will result in increased participation of youths in politics. This goes to show

that the youths, as the audience, are not passive. In the same vein, political candidates are

also able to select and use the social media platform of their choice to disseminate the

messages of their choice during electoral campaigns and other electioneering activities.

The theory is relevant to this study as this research looks into why and how youths

use social media to participate in politics. In the context of this study, the application of

user and gratification theory to the study of social media and political participation offers

valuable insights into how individuals engage with digital platforms for both personal

gratification and political involvement. This theory provides a lens through which we can

understand why users choose to consume and interact with social media content, as well

as how these platforms influence their political behaviors and engagement.

In the realm of social media, User Gratification Theory sheds light on why people

select specific platforms and content to fulfill their personal needs. Social media users

28
may seek information, entertainment, social interaction, identity validation, or emotional

satisfaction. For instance, individuals might use platforms like Facebook, Instagram, or

Twitter to connect with friends and family, share personal experiences, seek validation

through likes and comments, and satisfy their need for social connection and also

explains the understanding on the use of new media and how users seek social media and

to what extent they are satisfied with its type, content, and method of use as a tool for

political participation is being explained (Mojaye & Aondover, 2022).

When examining political participation, the theory reveals how social media users

engage with political content to satisfy their information-seeking needs. Social media

serves as a platform where users can access news articles, opinion pieces, and political

discussions. Individuals can tailor their media consumption to receive information that

aligns with their political ideologies, reinforcing their existing beliefs. Moreover, social

media facilitates interactions with political figures and organizations, allowing users to

seek real-time updates, engage in discussions, and share their viewpoints. User

Gratification Theory also comes into play when understanding how social media

enhances political engagement through social interaction. Social media platforms enable

users to join political groups, participate in online discussions, and share their

perspectives with a global audience.

This dynamic interactivity satisfies users' need for social engagement and

empowerment, fostering a sense of participation and connection to larger political

conversations. Entertainment, a key driver in User Gratification Theory, intersects with

29
political participation on social media. Users may be drawn to engaging and entertaining

political content, such as satirical videos, memes, and political humor. This content not

only provides amusement but can also shape users' perceptions of political issues and

figures.

While User Gratification Theory provides valuable insights, it's essential to

acknowledge potential challenges. The theory might not fully capture the complexity of

the social and psychological factors that influence political behavior. Additionally, it

might not account for the unintended consequences of exposure to biased or

sensationalized information on social media It also recognizes that individuals have

tremendous power over their decision on what they want in a media over the media's

influence on them. In essence, the application of User Gratification Theory to social

media and political participation highlights the dual nature of individuals' engagement on

digital platforms. It illustrates how users seek personal gratifications through social

interactions, information acquisition, and entertainment, while also engaging in political

discussions, staying informed, and participating in political processes. This theoretical

framework helps illuminate the motivations behind users' online behaviors and their

impact on broader social and political dynamics.

2.9 IMPACTS AND CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL MEDIA COVERAGE

The way that people connect, learn, and consume news in 2023 has been

profoundly changed by social media platforms. The rise of social media means that

traditional media outlets are no longer the only ones who determine what information is

30
relevant. Stories about the news may now be shared and altered thanks to social media

coverage. resulting in both favorable results and major obstacles. This research looked at

the influence of social media on elections in Nigeria, namely in the southeast, with a

focus on the 2023 Abia State and Enugu State gubernatorial elections, as well as their

impact on information dissemination, public opinion, and activism. It also looks at the

challenges posed by social media's quick speed, the spread of misleading information,

and privacy concerns. I. Impacts of Social Media Coverage According to the flowing are

the impact of Impacts on Social Media Coverage. They area. Information Dissemination

Social media platforms have completely changed the way that news is shared. With

billions of users globally, shares, retweets, and viral postings may swiftly spread news

articles to a large audience. Today's users have more access to news sources outside of

conventional media, as well as a variety of viewpoints. The democratization of

information makes it possible to comprehend events and problems on a larger scale.

Public Opinion: Social media coverage has the ability to alter public opinion and

debate. It gives a forum for people to express themselves, participate in debates, and

interact with others. Hashtags and popular subjects have developed into effective

instruments for energizing societies, initiating dialogues, and increasing consciousness on

significant societal concerns. [26]c. Activism and Social Movements: Coverage of social

media has been essential in advancing social movements and activism. Twitter and

Facebook are examples of platforms that have been useful in coordinating actions,

planning protests, and bringing underrepresented perspectives to a wider audience. In

31
order to bring about social change, activists can gather support, collect money, and

highlight social injustices.

2.10 CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL MEDIA COVERAGE

Pennycook & Rand (2019), stated the following as the challenges of social media

coverage. They are: a. Spread of Misinformation: One of the biggest issues with social

media coverage is the rapid dissemination of misinformation. Quickly spreading rumors,

conspiracy theories, and false information led to generalized mistrust and bewilderment.

The absence of gatekeeping and fact-checking procedures on social media platforms

poses a significant danger to accurate information b. Privacy Concerns: Regarding

privacy and data protection, social media coverage poses questions.

Users on these platforms are exposed to data breaches, spying, and exploitation

since they often exchange personal information. The collection and use of personal

information by social media corporations raises ethical and legal concerns about privacy

rights said that social media coverage had revolutionized public opinion, sparked social

transformation, and had far-reaching effects on society. It also comes with a number of

serious drawbacks, such as the dissemination of false information and privacy

Innovations, Number 76 March 2024 720 www.journal-innovations.com issues.

Recognizing and resolving these issues is crucial to maximizing social media coverage's

potential benefits and minimizing its drawbacks. 2023 Nigerian Gubernatorial Elections.

In 2023, 31 of Nigeria's 36 states had governorship elections. in the upcoming

elections, a total of twelve out of the fourteen PDP-led states and eighteen out of the
32
twenty APC-led states will be holding elections. In the March elections, both the PDP

and the APC secured victories in two governorship positions each: the PDP in Plateau

and Zamfara, and the APC in Benue and Sokoto.. Social Media Coverage of the Nigeria

2023 Governorship Election: Pre-Election Phase, Election Day Coverage, and Post-

Election Phase In recent years, social media platforms have transformed into powerful

tools for political dialogue and information transmission.

The pre-election period, election day coverage, and real-time updates have all been

made possible by social media. and post-election phase. The Nigeria 2023 Governorship

Election is no exception. In this essay, the effect and consequences on social media

coverage on each stage of the election are examined, with an emphasis on both the

benefits and the drawbacks

2.11 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

In their study of social media and political participation in the midst of COVID-19

pandemic during the Anambra 2021 gubernatorial election, Nwafor, Ugwuanyi and

Amatu (2023) adopted the survey research design and determined the sample size of 384

that they studied using Krejcie and Morgan sample size table. Using the multi-stage

sampling procedure, they selected the samples from 9 communities (Onitsha, Atani,

Inoma, Nibo, Ukpo, Oba, Ufuma, Ozubulu and Amichi) in Anambra State and

administered questionnaires to them. They used frequency tables and simple percentages

in the analyses of their findings. From their study, they found, among others, that social

33
media sites influenced the respondents’ choice of candidate during the 2021 Anambra

gubernatorial election.

Based on their findings, they recommended, among others, that the Nigerian

Government should enforce credible monitoring to stop the increasing rate of fake news

and abuse of social media platforms by citizen journalists.

This study focused on 2021 Anambra gubernatorial election while the current

study focused on the 2023 general elections in Nigeria. In another study to examine

social media usage and women’s political participation in Anambra State, Nigeria,

Nnabuife and Nwolu (2022) adopted the survey research design and used Taro Yamane

formula to determine the sample size of 399 women they studied. They used

questionnaire as their instrument for data collection and used frequency tables and simple

percentages to analyze their findings. From the study, they found, among others, that the

respondents they studied, do not use social media to enhance their efforts towards

participation in politics despite having high access to social media applications. Based

on their findings, they recommended, among others, that women should leverage on their

high social media access to push discourse on increased participation in politics.

This study focused on women’s participation in politics while the current study

focused on youth participation in politics. While examining the veracity of Facebook

and WhatsApp as tools for mobilizing the youths for active political engagements in

Lagos State, Nigeria, for the 2019 general elections, Ogbemudia, Okuh and Akinlade

(2021) adopted the survey research design determined and selected the 385 youths that

34
they studied using the Australian online calculator and purposive sampling

technique, respectively.

They used questionnaire as their data collection instrument and used the Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 to process the data they collected.

From this study, they found among others, that Facebook and WhatsApp were

frequently used during the 2019 general elections to reach the users of the

Social media platforms with political messages and that the respondents were

exposed to various messages on the platforms during the election period. Based on their

findings, they recommended, among others, that electoral umpires and the Government

should consider online tools to fully involve youths for broader civic engagement and

political involvement. This study focused on the 2019 general elections and was

conducted in Lagos State while the current study focused on the 2023 general elections

and was conducted in Oyo State.

To ascertain the influence of social media on youth participation in the

2015/2019 general elections in Nigeria, Fasola and Oyadeyi (2021) adopted the survey

research design and used questionnaire as their data collection instrument. They analyzed

the data they collected using frequency tables, simple percentages and differential

statistics. From this study, they found, among others, that majority of the respondents

were actively spending most of their time in online political discussions on real life

political issues with 59.3% of them voting in the 2015 and 2019 general elections. Based

on their findings, they recommended, among others, that politicians should leverage more

on social media to sensitize the populace, especially youths on policies that affect them.

35
 This study focused on the 2015 and 2019 general elections while the current study

focused on the 2023 general elections. Evaluating the influence of social media on

political participation among residents of Abia, Anambra and Imo States, Anyanwu and

Orji (2020) adopted the survey research design and determined the sample of 385 youths

that they studied using Australian calculator.

In the selection of the respondents they studied, they used multi-stage sampling

procedure and used a structured questionnaire to collect data. For the analyses of their

findings, they used simple percentages and frequency distribution tables. From the study,

they found, among others, that South East residents’ exposure to the social media

positively influenced their participation in political activities. Based on their findings,

they recommended, among others, that Government and Non- Agencies,

Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), politicians and media

professionals should persistently use social media as instruments for social change to

mobilize and create awareness before, during and after elections. This study did not focus

on the 2023 general elections while the current study focused on the 2023 general

elections. In their evaluation of social media and the participation of University of

Nigeria.

For the analyses of their findings, they used frequency tables and simple

percentages. From the study, they found, among others, that the students are highly

exposed to the social media and do use the social media to participate in politics to a high

extent.

36
 Based on their findings, they recommended, among others, that tertiary institutions

must make it their responsibility to train and produce students that are conscious of their

activities and actions in ways that promote peace and unity in the country. This study was

conducted in Enugu State while the current study was carried out in Anambra State. In

an investigation to find out how young people in rural communities in Enugu, Anambra

and Ogun States participated in the 2015 presidential election with respect to their social

media presence, Morah, Omojola and Uzochukwu (2016) adopted the survey research

design and determined the sample size of 600 youths that they studied using Meyer’s

(1979) sampling estimation. For the selection of the 600 samples, they used purposive

sampling technique and used questionnaire to collect data.

They used frequency tables and simple percentages to analyze their findings. From

this study, they found, among others, that the numerous mobile text messages and social

media updates sent and posted by politicians during the 2015 presidential election.

campaign, influenced the youths’ voting decisions with a minimal effect. Based on

their findings, they recommended, among others, that the poglity should be educated on

the essence of mobile technologies in governance so that they can utilize it as an effective

political communication tool for national development. This study focused on the 2015

presidential election while the current study focused on the 2023 governorship election.

In their examination of the effects that the social media is exerting on the socio-

political participation of Nigerian youths, Uji (2015) adopted the survey research design

and used questionnaire to collect data. She used purposive sampling technique to select

the respondents she studied and used frequency tables and simple percentages to analyze

37
her findings. From this study, she found, among others, that most of the youths she

studied participate in social media discussions on socio-political matters affecting the

country.

Based on their findings, they recommended, among others, that there should be

improved media literacy on the part of avid social media users and activists in order to

make the best use of the social media for socio-political participation and reduce

incidences of false or malicious information going viral and affecting the society

negatively.

2.12 POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION THEORY

This theory which was propounded by Langton (1969), explores how individuals

develop political beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours (Iringe-Koko & Adedunmola, 2024). It

is a theory that can help to understand how young people in Nigeria are influenced by

various factors, such as family, education, media, and peer groups, in shaping their

political views and engagement (Dekker, German & De-Landtsheer, 2020).

In agreement, Marshall (1998) cited in Olasupo (2015) stated that political

socialization is a lifelong process and a variety of individuals and institutions contribute

to its shaping effect. Citing an example, Marshall (1998) also stated that individuals are

politically socialized by such groups as their family, peers, and social class while they are

further socialized by existing laws, media, religion, education, their own gender, and

more. Basically, the process is never ending and the factors which shape it are all

encompassing (Olasupo, 2015).

38
 The groups and institutions above which contribute to the process of political

socialization are known as the agents of socialization (Olasupo, 2015). These sources,

according to him, affect the development of political values and attitudes differently, but

they all contribute to the individual's understanding of and orientations toward politics.

The primary agents of socialization are those that directly develop specific political

orientations such as the family. Whereas, the secondary agents of socialization tend to be

less personal and involved in the process of socialization in a more indirect manner such

as the media (Olasupo, 2015).

Political socialization theory has several implications for understanding and

promoting youth participation in Nigeria’s political processes by recognizing the

influence of early socialization experiences (family, education, media) while

highlighting the need for interventions that promote civic education and positive political

values at a young age (Iringe-Koko & Adedunmola, 2024). Since the media is one of the

agents of socialization that contribute to the process of political socialization that shape

people’s political views and engagement, it means that the social media as an agent of

socialization that contribute to the process of political socialization, might shape the

political views and engagement (participation) of the selected undergraduate students in

the 2023 general elections.

39
 \CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

The study adopted survey research method, survey research method means

collecting information about a group of people by asking them questions and analyzing

the results. They are a good choice when you want to find out about the characteristics,

preferences, opinions, or beliefs of a group of people. Also, the choice of survey method

was informed based the postulation of the positivist approach of research design, which

subscribe to quantitative method.

3.2 POPULATION SIZE

The word population to a layman means the total number of people irrespective of

their age in a particular geographical are such as town or country.

However, statistician believe that population is specially used meaning the number of a

larger group form which the number of a sample are selected.

The population of this study is focused on the individuals in Oluyole local

government area of Oyo State which are Four Hundred Thousand Individuals (400,000).

Therefore, the sample size of this research is calculated by using Taro Yamane Formula

with 95% confidence level. The calculation formula of Taro Yamane is presented as

follows:

n=N/1+N(e)2
40
Where : n=Sample size required

N=number of people in the population

e=allowable error (%)

Calculation; n=400,000/ (1+400,000(0.05)2)

n=400,000/ (1+400,000(0.0025)

n=400,000/1+1000

n=400,000/1100

n=364.

This study adopts the convenience sampling technique which is under the Non

probability sampling technique. In Convenience sampling technique, each cluster of the

sample has been selected from the target population on the basis of their accessibility or

convenience to the researcher.

3.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

A sample is a number of well-defined element that may be considered of selected.

Any unit draw by some specified procedure form statistical population. Also, the sample

size population must be as large as possible to be representatives of the whole population

size. Due to time and cost involved in this types of studies there is utilization of a

covenants sampled used on the assumptions that respondents contacted easily.

3.4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Questionnaire was the main instrument used for the purpose of data collection for

this study. The terms generated on the questionnaire in line with the variables identified
41
on the research questions and the hypothesis after the review of relevant concepts and

other personal observations. the instrument has two section. The first part sought the

background information of the respondents. The second part had the items or statements

constructed in line with the research questions and the hypothesis earlier stated.

3.5 VALIDITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

The validity of the instrument (questionnaire) used for this study was done through

a discussion with the researcher’s supervisor regarding the content, format employed and

its general suitability to the respondents as well as their appropriateness to the purpose of

the research.

3.6 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

In order to establish the degree reliability, consistency, stability and accuracy of

the instrument, a pilot study was conducted. It was to ensure consistency and reliability of

the rest scores. The pilot study was carried out in Oluyole local government area of Oyo

State.

3.7 METHOD OF DATA ADMINISTRATION

The study administered the questionnaire to the respondents likewise, the area

chosen from the selected area in Oluyole local government area within distinct area were

visited. The respondents were selected using simple random sampling technique. Each of

them was given a copy of the questionnaire. All the questionnaires administered were

properly responded to and returned.

42
 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSI AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 PRESENTATION OF DATA
This chapter deals with analysis used the interpretation of the data collected

through the use of questionnaire, the need becomes apparent to analyze these data.

Therefore, for the clarity and simplicity, the analysis of data in respect of

particular question is immediately followed by the interpretation of finding the analysis

percentage. It should be noted that raw data does not have any appreciable value until it is

analyzed and it then becomes to others.

The respondents responses are tabulated and analyzed to determine which factor

had an overriding effect or influence over other

A total of twenty (20) questionnaire were distributed to some residents of Oluyole

local government area of Oyo State while (20) were reserved fully and duly completed

ANALYSIS OF THE RESPONSE GIVEN BY THE SOME RESIDENTS OF

OLUYOLE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF OYO STATE

Table 1. shows the sex analysis of the respondents

Variables Frequency Percentage%

Male 136 37.4

Female 228 62.6

Total 364 100

43
Source: (Field survey, 2025)

Table 1 presents the gender of the respondents. Based on frequency and

percentage the data shows 37.4% (n=136) are male, 62.4% (n=228) are female. Based on

the data generated, female respondents have the highest, which means they are the

dominant respondents within the period of study. This result mirrors previous study

conducted by Arijeniwa et al., (2022) in which the authors found that youths are the

highest users of social media in Nigeria and world over. Findings also showed that the

respondents were able to establish the perceived roles that social media performs in

electioneering campaign, especially as regards Nigerian youths.

Table 2. this shows the age distribution of the respondents

Variables Frequency Percentage%

18-23 301 87%

24-29 29 8%

30-35 6 2%

36Above 10 3%

TOTAL 346 100%

Source: (Field survey, 2025)

Table 2 presents the age bracket of the respondents. Based on frequency and

percentage the data shows that 18-23years of the respondents account for 87% (n=301),

24-29years 8% (n=29), 30-35 years 6% (n=6), 36-Above 10% (n=10). This means that

44
18-23 years of the respondents are the dominant respondents in the study as they establish

87% compare to other age brackets in the study.

Table 3. Duration of the use of social media

Variables Frequency Percentage%

About a year ago 9 2.5

About two year ago 23 6.3

About three years ago 36 9.9

About four years ago 296 81.3

Total 364 100

Source: (Field survey, 2025)

Table 3 shows how long the respondents have been using social media. Based on

the data, 2.5% (n=9) of the respondents said about a year ago, 6.3% (n=23)of the

respondents said about two years ago,9.9% (n=36) of the respondents said about three

years ago. 81.3% (n=296) said about four years ago. These findings indicate that most

individuals from Iju Ishaga have started using social since about four years ago. Momoh

et al (2019) findings correspond with previous findings that information exchange as well

as voter education and mobilization are crucial role performed by the social media during

election.

Table 4. Frequency of social media usage

Variables Frequency Percentage%

Always 173 47.5

45
 Regularly 148 40.7

Occasionally 31 8.5

Rarely 12 3.3

Total 364 100

Source: (Field survey, 2025)

Table 4 shows how often respondents uses social media. From the table above

47.5% (n =173) respondents chose always, 40.7% (n=148) respondents chose regularly,

8.5% (n=31) respondents chose occasionally, 3.3% (n=12) respondents chose rarely. This

data therefore shows that most respondents in Iju Ishaga use social media on a daily

basis. Aondover et al., (2022), study also explains the presence of respondents using

social media for one to three years in the early adoption within the community.

Table 5. Reasons for Using Social Media for Political Participation

Variables Frequency Percentage%

Easy access 159 43.7

Because it is available 56 15.4

Interactivity 137 37.6

Because most people use it 12 3.3

Total 364 100

Source (Field Survey, 2025).

46
 Table 5 shows the reasons why respondents use social media for political

participation. Based on the table above 43,7%(n=159) of the respondents said easy

access, 15.4%(n=56) of the respondents said because it is avaliable,37.6%(n=137) of the

respondents settled on interactivity, and 3.3%(n=12) said because most people use it. The

responses show that most of the respondents used social media for political participation

because of easy access.

Table 6. Social Media for political Participation in the 2023 Governorship election

Variables Frequency Percentage%

Whatsapp 104 28.6

Instagram 111 30.5

Twitter 149 40.9

Total 364 100

Source (Field Survey, 2025).

Table 6 shows the social media platform respondents used for political

participation. The above data shows that 28.6% (n=104) of the respondents used

Whatsapp, 30.5% (n=111) of the respondents used Instagram and 40.9% (n=149) used

twitter. This shows that most respondents used twitter for political participation in the

2023 general election. This aligns with Momoh's (2019) assertion that ease of access to

information drives social media use.

Table 7. Effectiveness of Technologies for political mobilization on social media

Variables Frequency Percentage%

Good 146 40.1

Fair 74 20.3

Total 364 100

Source: (Field Survey, 2025)

Table 7 shows how the respondents rates the effectiveness of technology for the

political participation in the general election 39.6% (n=144) rates it very good, 40.1%

(n=146)rates it good, and 20.3%(n=74) rates it fair. Based on the table, it is obvious that

the effectiveness of technology was very good as 40.1% of the respondents agree to it.

Table 8. Misinformation or Disinformation on Social Media in the 2023 General

Elections

Variables Frequency Percentage%

Yes 264 72.5

No 41 11.3

Maybe 59 16.2

Total 364 100

Source (Field Survey, 2025).

Table 8 reveals whether the respondents encountered any kind of Misinformation

during the 2023 general elections. Going by the data 72.5%(n=264) chose yes,11.3%

(n=41) chose no while 16.2% (n=59)chose maybe. Based on this context, most

48
respondents encountered misinformation from social media during the 2023 general

election. Santini et al., (2019) observed that there is a high prevalence of misinformation

on social media during the 2023 general elections raises serious concerns about the

integrity of the electoral process and the wellbeing of society.

Table 9. Accessibility and Inclusivity of social media for political voices

Variables Frequency Percentage%

Very Good 103 28.3

Good 179 49.1

Fair 68 18.7

Poor 14 3.85

Total 364 100

Source (Field Survey, 2025).

Table 9 ascertains how the respondents rate the overall accessibility of social media

platforms for diverse political voices. 28.3%(n=103) agreed on very good, 49.1%

(n=179)agreed on good, 18.7%(n=68) agreed on fair and 3.85%(n=14)chose poor. Based

on this study, it is evident that most respondents said the overall accessibility of social

media was good as 49.1%records the highest within the period of study.

Table 10. Challenges of Using Social Media for Political Participation

Variables Frequency Percentage%

Yes 96 26.3

No 141 38.7

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 Not really 127 34.9

Total 364 100

Source (Field Survey, 2025).

Table 10 examines whether the respondents encountered any challenge while using social

media. Based on the table above 26.3% (n=96) choose yes, 38.7% (n=141) choose no and

34.9% (n=127) choose not really with this response it is quite obvious that most

respondents encountered issues while using social media for political participation.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF THE MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND

5.1 SUMMARY OF THE MAJOR FINDINGS

The following major findings were made in the course of this research work: 1.

Social media played a significant role in Nigerian political awareness and participation in

the just concluded 2023 governorship elections. 2. The coverage of Nigeria's election

through social media curtails election rigging and fraud

5.2 CONCLUSSION

Media significantly influenced Nigerian political awareness and Participation in

the recently concluded 2023 governorship election. Additionally, social media helped the

Nigerian governorship elections of 2023 run smoothly and successfully. Lastly, voters

claim that social media can be used to improve future elections in Nigeria because it has

the potential to lower electoral fraud lower campaign costs, and enshrine transparency in

the electoral process, among other things.

The role of social media in political mobilization and participation in Nigeria. The

objective was to see, considering the 2023 elections, the nature of political is course

online using Nigerian twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, what as a study. With the aid of a

qualitative technique, tweets were extracted and analyzed. From the data harvested,

themes identified relating to key discussions were discussed, the findings among others,

reveal that majority of the discussions online are steered by citizens various calls through

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the deployment of hashtags for mobilization, information, advocacy and call for actions.

Also, the sentiment analysis made it clear that citizen sentiments were mostly negative

suggesting displeasure with the current administration; this is, therefore, a factor that

influenced the various calls for action online. The paper concludes that while the role of

the social media cannot be ignored in political processes, it is not the only factor

influencing political outcomes as politics is a more complex process. It, therefore,

recommends that citizens must harness the power of social media as it a viable medium

due to its complementary role in influencing political participation and mobilization in all

ramification.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Against this backdrop, the following recommendations were made:

i. The Electoral Act should be reviewed to provide specific guidelines on the use

of social media in Nigeria’s future elections

ii. ii. The use of Electronic Card readers must be perfected to avoid technical

hitches as experienced during the last elections.

iii. iii. INEC should establish a social media tracking enter to monitor, collate, and

interpret trend sand reports during elections. iv. INEC, civil society

organizations, and security agencies should establish modalities to

iv. Politicians and political parties, as well as their supporters should be cautioned

on using social media to post/twitdys functional messages. Government or

INEC may consider enacting laws that make such acts punishable offence.

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v. Efforts should be made towards monitoring, moderating or regulating the

various social media platforms in order to minimize the observed weaknesses

and maximize the intrinsic values of the technology in the electoral process.

vi. 4.To achieve the above, it is imperative that the various media laws are

urgently reviewed to address the technicalities involved in the new media

technologies; this we believe would go a long way in making the technology

more useful in the electoral process and more beneficial to the society at large.

53
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