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Modeling and Simulation in Science, Engineering and Technology

Series Editor
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Politecnico di Torino
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Antonio Romano

Geometric Optics
Theory and Design of Astronomical Optical
Systems Using MathematicaR

Birkhäuser
Boston • Basel • Berlin
Antonio Romano
Dipartimento di Matematica
e Applicazioni “R. Caccioppoli”
Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”
via Cintia
80126 Napoli
Italy
[email protected]

ISBN 978-0-8176-4871-8 e-ISBN 978-0-8176-4872-5

DOI 10.1007/978-0-8176-4872-5
Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009938171

Mathematics Subject Classification (2000): 78A05, 78-01, 78-04

c Birkhäuser Boston, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written
permission of the publisher (Birkhäuser Boston, c/o Springer Science+Business Media LLC, 233 Spring
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Printed on acid-free paper

Birkhäuser Boston is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.birkhauser.com)

Contents

Preface ix

1 Fermat’s Principle and General Considerations Regarding

Centered Optical Systems 1
1.1 An Introduction to Fermat’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Forming an Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Axial Chromatic Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Monochromatic Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Surfaces of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Ray Tracing in Axially Symmetric Systems . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Gaussian Optics 25
2.1 Gaussian Approximation for a Single Surface . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Compound Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Principal Planes and Focal Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Stops and Pupils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5 Some Gaussian Optical Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.6 Gaussian Analysis of Compound Systems . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.7 A Graphical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3 Fermat’s Principle and Third-Order Aberrations 49

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 The Aberration Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 A New Aberration Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4 The Aberration Function Φ for a Single Surface . . . . . . . 59
3.5 The Total Aberration Function for a Compound System . . 63
3.6 Analysis of Third-Order Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.7 Petzval’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.8 Aberration Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

v
vi Contents

3.9 Combined Effect of Third-Order Aberrations . . . . . . . . 75

3.10 Primary or Axial Chromatic Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.11 Aplanatism and the Helmholtz Condition . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.12 Some Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.13 Light Diffraction and the Airy Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

4 Newtonian and Cassegrain Telescopes 91

4.1 Newtonian Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2 Cassegrain Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3 Spherical Aberration and Coma in Cassegrain Telescopes . 96
4.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

5 Cameras for Astronomy 101

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.2 Aberrations for a Single Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.3 Schmidt Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.5 Wright Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.6 Houghton Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.8 Maksutov Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.9 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

6 Compound Cassegrain Telescopes 127

6.1 Introduction to Cassegrain Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.2 Schmidt–Cassegrain Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.4 Houghton–Cassegrain Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.6 Maksutov–Cassegrain Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.8 Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

7 Doublets and Triplets 145

7.1 Achromatic Doublets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.2 Elimination of Spherical Aberration and Coma . . . . . . . 147
7.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.4 Triplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Contents vii

8 Other Optical Combinations 157

8.1 Cassegrain Telescope with Spherical Surfaces . . . . . . . . 157
8.2 The Flat-Field Baker–Schmidt Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.3 Cassegrain Telescope with the Corrector at the Prime
Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.4 The Klevtsov Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.5 A First Analysis of the Meniscus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.6 Analysis of the Mangin Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.7 Buchroeder Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

9 Fermat’s Principle and Wavefronts 171

9.1 Fermat’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.2 The Boundary Value Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.3 Rotational Symmetry and Lagrange’s Invariant . . . . . . . 183
9.4 Wavefronts and Fermat’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9.5 Huygens’ Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

10 Hamiltonian Optics 191

10.1 Hamilton’s Equations in Geometrical Optics . . . . . . . . . 191
10.2 Hamilton’s Principal Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.3 Symmetries and Characteristic Functions . . . . . . . . . . 197
10.4 Lagrange’s Optical Invariant for Axially Symmetric
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

11 Monochromatic Third-Order Aberrations 201

11.1 Introduction to Third-Order Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.2 Third-Order Aberrations via the Angular Function . . . . . 202
11.3 Reduced Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.4 Schwarzschild’s Eikonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.5 Addition Theorem for Third-Order Aberrations . . . . . . . 210
11.6 Fourth-Order Expansion of the Angular Function . . . . . . 212
11.7 Aberrations of Axially Symmetric Systems . . . . . . . . . . 215

References 219

Index 223
Preface

A very wide selection of excellent books are available to the reader interested
in geometric optics. Roughly speaking, these texts can be divided into three
main classes.
In the first class (see, for instance, [1]–[9]), we find books that present the
theoretical aspects of the subject, usually starting from the Lagrangian and
Hamiltonian formulations of geometric optics. These texts analyze the re-
lations between geometric optics, mechanics, partial differential equations,
and the wave theory of optics. The second class comprises books that focus
on the applications of this theory to optical instruments. In these books,
some essential formulae (which are reported without providing proofs) are
used to propose exact or approximate solutions to real-world problems (an
excellent example of this class is represented by [10]). The third class con-
tains books that approach the subject in a manner that is intermediate
between the first two classes (see, for instance, [11]–[16]).
The aim of this book, which could be placed in the third class, is to
provide the reader with the mathematical background needed to design many
optical combinations that are used in astronomical telescopes and cameras.1
The results presented here were obtained by using a different approach to
third-order aberration theory as well as the extensive use of the software
package Mathematica  R
.
The different approach to third-order aberration theory adopted in this
book is based on Fermat’s principle and on the use of particular optical
paths (not rays) termed stigmatic paths. This approach makes it easy to
derive the third-order aberration formulae. In this way, the reader is able
to understand and handle the formulae required to design optical combina-
tions without resorting to the much more complex Hamiltonian formalism
and Seidel’s relations. On the other hand, the Hamiltonian formalism has
unquestionable theoretical utility considering its important applications in

1 For a good example of a professional textbook on astronomical optics, see [13].

ix
x Preface

optics, in mechanics, and in the theory of partial differential equations. For

this reason, Hamiltonian optics is widely discussed in Chapters 9–11.
The use of Mathematica  R
to design optical combinations is shown to
be very convenient. In fact, although the aberration formulae are obtained
in an elementary way, their application in the design process necessitates a
lot of calculations. Using Mathematica  R
, it is possible to implement pro-
grams that allow us to realize the third-order design of all the astronomical
combinations described in this book. Although experience has shown that
a design based on third-order optics is not always acceptable, this approach
can be used as a starting point for any optimization method available in
professional software, such as OSLO and ATMOS, the simplest versions
of which can be freely downloaded from the Internet. However, we must
bear in mind that optimization methods will only give correct results if
the data used in the approximate design are very similar to those used in
the final project. These methods must be handled with great care, since
they will very often lead to a new design that is worse than the origi-
nal one. The reason for this is that the function to be minimized contains
many minima that are very close to each other and do not correspond
to an effective improvement in the optical combination. For this reason,
the author, with the help of A. Limongiello, developed the software Op-
tisoft (which runs in the Microsoft Windows environment), which allows
the final forms of all the optical combinations considered in this book to
be obtained.
In the first chapter, the essential aspects of an optical system S with
an axis of rotational symmetry are introduced. Moreover, we analyze all
of the data supplied by optical software in order to check whether a given
optical system S is acceptable or not. Chapter 2 describes the Gaussian
characteristics of S: conjugate planes, magnification, focal and nodal points,
principal planes and optical invariants. The matrix form of the Gaussian
approximation is also presented in detail. All of the Gaussian data for an
optical system can be derived using the notebook GaussianData.2
In Chapter 3, a new approach to third-order monochromatic aberra-
tion that is based on both Fermat’s principle and stigmatic paths is de-
scribed. Here it is shown that these optical paths can be used in Fermat’s
principle instead of the real rays, with the advantage that the stigmatic
paths are completely known, since they are determined by Gaussian op-
tics. The third-order aberrations for any optical system can be obtained
in mathematical form using the notebook TotalAberrations. It should
be noted that the symbolic formulae are so dense for optical systems con-
taining many elements with finite thicknesses that they are not practical
to apply.

2A program written with Mathematica 

R
can be saved as a notebook or a package.
Preface xi

Chapter 4 contains an analysis of Newtonian and Cassegrain telescopes

based on conical mirrors. In Chapters 5 and 6 we study photographic
cameras containing lenses and mirrors (Schmidt, Wright, Houghton, and
Maksutov cameras), as well as the corresponding catadioptric Cassegrain
telescopes. Finally, the third-order design of achromatic doublets or apo-
chromatic doublets and triplets is discussed in Chapter 7. Some other
interesting optical devices, including the Klevtsov combination and the
Baker–Schmidt flat-field camera, are studied in Chapter 8.
Finally, the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulations for geometric op-
tics and Seidel’s third-order aberration theory are treated in Chapters 9–11.
Each optical combination analyzed in this book is accompanied by a note-
book that automates its third-order design. All of these notebooks work in
versions 4, 5, and 6 of Mathematica  R
and may be downloaded from
the Publisher’s website at: http://www.birkhauser.com/978-0-8176-4871-8.
These notebooks represent an integral part of the book for many reasons.
First, they contain many calculations that appear in the book and many
worked exercises. Moreover, many other exercises can be carried out by the
reader him- or herself. Finally, carefully studying the programs contained
in the notebooks could provide a useful way for readers to learn how to
program with Mathematica  R
.
We conclude by noting that amateurs with sufficient knowledge of math-
ematics may find it interesting to learn how to derive the formulae listed in
many manuals from the general laws of geometric optics. On the other hand,
amateurs who are not interested in learning the mathematical background
of optics can use the notebooks contained in the book to rapidly obtain the
third-order designs of many cameras and telescopes used in astronomy.

Naples, Italy Antonio Romano

August 2009
Chapter 1
Fermat’s Principle and General
Considerations Regarding Centered
Optical Systems

1.1 An Introduction to Fermat’s Principle

Faraday and Lentz discovered that a varying magnetic field produces an
electric field. Subsequently, Maxwell hypothesized that the inverse process
was possible—that a varying electric field will produce a magnetic field—
and he postulated a set of equations relating to electromagnetism in his
famous Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Ever since then, electric and
magnetic phenomena have been regarded as two interconnected aspects of
the electromagnetic field, which, in turn, is propagated by electromagnetic
waves. Moreover, Maxwell showed that light waves are a particular type of
electromagnetic wave, so the field of optics merged with electromagnetism.
This suggests that one could study the propagation of light waves across
an optical system using Maxwell’s equations along with suitable bound-
ary conditions, depending on the nature of the media involved. However,
although theoretically possible, such an approach is not practical, since it
introduces insurmountable technical difficulties. For example, the simple
analysis of light propagation across a hole in an obstacle (i.e., of the dif-
fraction of light) is so complex that it is necessary to apply the approximate
procedure expressed by Huygens–Kirchhoff’s principle (see Section 9.5).
Consequently, we must follow an approach that is frequently used in
physics—we must resort to using a simpler model to describe such phe-
nomena. Geometric optics, which amounts to a drastic simplification of
light propagation, is applicable when the dimensions of the bodies across
which the light propagates are large compared with the wavelength of the
light.
Let us consider the propagation of a monochromatic light wave in an
isotropic medium Σ that has a refractive index N (x) which depends on

A. Romano, Geometric Optics, Modeling and Simulation in Science, 1

Engineering and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-0-8176-4872-5_1,
© Birkhäuser Boston, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
2 Chapter 1. Fermat’s Principle and General Considerations

the point x. If we suppose that the wavelength of the light is small com-
pared with the dimensions of both the interposed obstacles (“stops”) and
the regions traversed, the propagation of the light can be described by ei-
ther wavefronts (Huygens’ principle) or by rays, which are the curves
normal to wavefronts (Fermat’s principle).
For now, we will postulate Fermat’s principle without criticism and apply
it in order to derive Gaussian optics and third-order aberration theory
in an elementary way. The results of the first two chapters will then be
used to analyze and design many astronomical optical systems. Finally, the
theoretical aspects of geometric optics will be developed in Chapters 9–11
of this book.
The optical path length OP L(γ) along any curve γ is defined by the
following formula: 
OP L(γ) = N (x)ds. (1.1)
γ
If the curve γ is a light ray, v denotes the speed of light in medium Σ, and
c is the speed of light in a vacuum, then we have
c
N ds = ds = cdt,
v
so that the elementary optical path length along a ray is proportional to
the time dt taken for the light to propagate along γ.
The starting point for geometric optics is Fermat’s principle, which
(very roughly) can be formulated in the following way:
The optical path length of a light ray passing from point x to
point x is the length of the shortest optical path between the same
points.
We must now answer the following fundamental questions:
• Does this principle determine the ray γ between two given points x
and x when the refractive index N (x) has been assigned?
• Is the ray uniquely determined?
• How do we take into account the discontinuities in the refractive index
N (x) along the path of the ray?
Fermat’s principle of the minimum optical path length was one of the first
examples of a variational principle in physics. Since it was formulated, the
number of variational principles has grown substantially in both physics and
mathematics, leading to problems that do not (for the most part) currently
have explicit exact solutions.
Briefly, a variational principle characterizes the unknown of a problem
(for instance, the ray between two points x and x ) by requiring that it min-
imizes a suitable integral expression (for instance, the optical path length).
1.1. An Introduction to Fermat’s Principle 3

This kind of principle leads to a mathematical problem that is quite dif-

ferent in nature from the initial value problem that Cauchy stated for or-
dinary differential equations. In the latter, we search for a function that
satisfies suitable initial data and, for any value of the independent variable,
a differential equation (i.e., a relation between the function itself and its
derivatives). However, it is not appropriate here to dive deeply into the
subject of variational principles, presenting their abstract and general for-
mulations. The aim here is simply to remind the reader that many problems
expressed in terms of differential equations could, equivalently, be formu-
lated by resorting to a variational principle. Initially, the fact that nature
seems to verify this “minimum principle” suggested to some that it had a
divine origin, and so they attributed a metaphysical meaning to variational
principles.
We answer all of the above questions in Chapter 9. In particular, it will
be shown that a ray is characterized by the condition that the optical path
length is stationary along it; this does not necessarily imply a minimum.
However, for now, the contents of the first eight chapters are based on the
following remarks, which derive from Fermat’s principle.

1. In regions with a constant refractive index, rays are straight

lines.
In fact, in these regions, the optical path length OP L(γ) of a curve γ
between two points x1 and x2 is proportional to the geometric length
of γ. Consequently, the minimum value of OP L(γ) corresponds to the
length of the shortest curve between x1 and x2 , which is a straight
line.

2. Let S be a surface separating two homogeneous media with

refractive indices N and N  . If x is the point at which a ray
meets S, t, t denote the tangent unit vectors to the ray at
x in the first and in the second media, respectively, and n
is the internal unit normal to S at x, then the vectors t, t ,
and n verify the equation (see Exercise 1):

N  t − N t = λn, (1.2)

where λ is a scalar quantity. In particular, the vectors t, t , and n are

coplanar. Moreover, after denoting the incident and refractive angles
(i.e., the angles that t and t form with n; see Figure 1.1) by i and
i , respectively, and evaluating the vector and the scalar products of
(1.2) with n, the following relations are obtained:

N
sin i = sin i, (1.3)
N
4 Chapter 1. Fermat’s Principle and General Considerations

Fig. 1.1 The refraction law


N2
λ=N 
1− sin2 i − N cos i. (1.4)
N 2

Relations (1.2)-(1.4), which express the refraction law, will be con-

sidered again in Chapter 9.

3. Let S be a surface separating two regions C1 and C2 with

constant refractive indices N1 and N2 , respectively. We de-
note the family of all broken lines starting from the point
x1 ∈ C1 and ending at the point x2 ∈ C2 by Γ. If the optical
path length OP L(γ), with γ ∈ Γ, is independent of γ, then all
the broken lines of Γ are rays.
In fact, since OP L(γ) has the same value for any γ ∈ Γ, it is stationary
along any path.
Under these conditions, the initial and final points of the rays belong-
ing to Γ are said to be stigmatic with respect to S.

4. Let I(x) be a spatial region containing the point x. Suppose

that for any point x ∈ I(x) one and only one ray γ exists
between x and x . Then, denoting the unit tangent vector to
γ by t, the optical path length along γ
 x

V (x, x ) = N t · dx, (1.5)
x

is a function of x and x . Moreover, the following relations

hold :

∇x V (x, x ) = −N (x)t(x), ∇x V (x, x ) = N (x )t(x ). (1.6)

Formulae (1.6), which derive from Leibnitz’s rule, will be proven in

Chapter 9.
1.2. Forming an Image 5

Remark We note that the reflection law, according to which the angle
of incidence i and the angle of reflection i satisfy the condition i = −i,
can be obtained by the refraction law (1.3) by inserting N = −N  = 1
into it.

In Chapters 2–8 we show many applications of the above consequences

of Fermat’s principle.

1.2 Forming an Image

Throughout this book we consider a centered optical system S consisting
of surfaces with a common axis a of revolution that separate homogeneous
optical media with different (but constant for each medium) refractive in-
dices. The axis a is called the optical axis of S. We also suppose that the
object that S must image is present in the plane π, which is orthogonal to
a and is called the object plane.
All of the considerations discussed in the following sections of this chapter
refer to a given optical system S with the above characteristics.
To analyze the behavior of the rays originating from a point on the object
and crossing the optical system S, we can use the refraction and reflection
laws. This procedure, which is called ray tracing, will be analyzed in detail
in Section 1.6. It is evident that it requires that the mathematical quantities
that define a ray are assigned. Now, if we introduce Cartesian coordinates
O, x, y in the object plane π, then a ray γ coming from (x, y) is determined
by providing the unit vector t along γ, i.e., the two director cosines α and
β of γ (see Figure 1.2).
It should be noted that the quantities x, y, t, although natural, are not
the most convenient variables to use. In fact, it is evident that some rays
from (x, y) ∈ π do not reach the optical system S due to either the finite
dimensions of the optical components or the presence of a stop along the
optical path. Let us consider the set of the rays arising from the point
O ∈ a.
In Figure 1.3, the rim of the first surface of the optical path limits the
aperture of the cone C of rays from O. It is then natural to identify a ray
γ by providing the coordinates (x, y) of the point on the object in π and
the coordinates (xe , ye ) of the point of intersection of γ with the tangent
plane πe at the vertex of the first surface of S. In Figure 1.4, the cone C
is determined by a stop in the plane πe , and we can again identify (xe , ye )
as the coordinates of the point of intersection of a ray with πe . However, in
Figure 1.5 the stop is located after the optical system. In this case, owing
to Fermat’s principle, a ray from O is still determined by providing the
6 Chapter 1. Fermat’s Principle and General Considerations

t x
O
y’
g
p
a x’
O’
p’

Fig. 1.2 A ray γ from the object plane to the image plane

coordinates of its point of intersection with the plane of the stop, but we
cannot explicitly write the equation of the ray by providing these coordi-
nates. In this case, we must choose a suitable plane πe in front of the object
plane π, and determine the coordinates (xe , ye ) of the point of intersection
of γ with πe of any ray which succeeds in crossing S. In Chapter 2 we discuss
the criterion for defining a suitable reference plane πe . This analysis, which
leads us to the definitions of entrance pupil and exit pupil in particular,
shows that the reference plane is just given by πe in the cases of Figures
1.3 and 1.4, whereas it gives the correct position of the plane πe in the case
of Figure 1.5. In conclusion, from now on, a ray will be identified by the
variables x, y, xe , ye .
Let π  be another plane orthogonal to the optical axis a. Two points
x and x are said to be stigmatic for S if all of the rays from x reach
the point x after crossing the system S. The system S is said to be an
ideal system or an aberration-free system for the object plane π if the
following conditions are satisfied:
1. There is a plane π  such that points in π exhibit a one-to-one cor-
respondence with points in π  , independent of the wavelength of the
light. In other words, each point x ∈ π corresponds to one and only
one point x ∈ π  , and so the points x and x are stigmatic for S.
2. The above correspondence preserves the form of the object.
In this case, the plane π  is said to be the image plane and π and π  are
said to be conjugate planes.
Consider two Cartesian frames Oxyz and Ox y  z  that have their origins
O, O in π, π  , respectively, and that have the axes Oz, Oz  coinciding with
the optical axis a of S. The coordinate plane Oyz is called the meridional
or tangential plane, whereas Oxz is said to be the sagittal plane. Due
1.2. Forming an Image 7

y (xe,ye) y’
t g

O O’
a
pe

Fig. 1.3 Stop on the first surface

y (xe,ye) y’
t g
O O’
a
stop
pe

Fig. 1.4 Stop before the first surface

to the refraction law, the rays that are present in the plane Oyz before
meeting S remain in this plane after crossing S. They are called merid-
ional or tangential rays, whereas the rays that lie in the plane Oxz are
said to be sagittal rays (see Figures 1.6 and 1.7). All of the other rays are
called skew rays.
The region containing the object, which by convention is always posi-
tioned on the left-hand side of S, is the object space, whereas the region
containing the image formed by S is the image space.
If πe is the abovementioned auxiliary plane in the object space, then
any ray r coming from the point (x, y) in the object plane π is completely
determined by providing the Cartesian coordinates (xe , ye ) or the polar
coordinates (r, ϕ) of the point at which r intersects with πe . Let (x , y  ) be
the point in the image plane π  reached by r. Using this notation, we can
say that the system S is ideal if it results in:

x = M x,
(1.7)
y  = M y,

where M , which is called the magnification of S with respect to the pair

of conjugate planes π and π  , is independent of (x, y), (xe , ye ), and the
wavelength of light λ (i.e., of the point on the object, the ray, and the
wavelength).
8 Chapter 1. Fermat’s Principle and General Considerations

y (xe,ye) y’
t g
O O’
a

pe stop

Fig. 1.5 Stop behind the last surface

x meridional plane
O
y’

p
x’
meridional ray O’

p’

Fig. 1.6 Meridional rays

In other words, an optical system is ideal if the the following properties

hold:

• The image of the object is planar and does not exhibit distortion

• Any point on the object and its corresponding point on the image are
stigmatic

• The above properties are independent of the wavelength of light λ.

In the following chapter it is shown that, for a given wavelength λ and

object plane π, any centered optical system is almost ideal; in other words,
there is a unique image plane π  —termed the Gaussian image plane—
for which the first two of the above properties are true, at least for points
on the object and image belonging to two small neighborhoods of π and
π  around the optical axis (the Gaussian or paraxial approximation).
However, in this case, both the position of the ideal image plane π  and the
magnification depend on λ.
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