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Southern Ladies,
New Women
Race, Region, and Clubwomen
in South Carolina, 1890-1930
Notes 209
Bibliography 259
Index 277
Illustrations
1. Louisa Poppenheim 85
Joan Marie Johnson’s pathbreaking Southern Ladies, New Women: Race, Re-
gion, and Clubwomen in South Carolina, 1890–1930 joins an increasing
number of books that use class, gender, and race to illumine the complexi-
ties of Southern history, historical memory, and identity. Women’s clubs,
North and South, black and white, were important gendered components
of the Progressive Era. By World War I their membership totaled over
one million nationally.
Elite and middle-class women joined clubs to establish and promote
female solidarity, to exchange intellectual interests, and to lobby and then
initiate reform. They studied literature, discussed historical and current
events, and pushed for social and political change. Clubwomen cam-
paigned for the construction of libraries, kindergartens, schools, and re-
formatories. But they also led the fight to improve conditions for laborers,
to clean up the cities, and to promote public health.
Examining minutely the women’s club movement among blacks and
whites in South Carolina, Johnson underscores the clubwomen’s “abilities
both to fuse Southern identity construction with social reform work and
to reconcile tradition with progress.” Drawing upon a rich arsenal of
sources, including minutes, newspapers, private papers, official publica-
tions, and oral history interviews, she compares the contributions, goals,
and strategies of three organizations. These include the white South Car-
olina Federation of Women’s Clubs (SCFWC) founded in 1898, the South
Carolina Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs (SCFCWC) launched in
1909, and the South Carolina state division of the United Daughters of
the Confederacy (UDC) organized in 1896. Though the SCFWC and the
UDC shared many members and ideals, the UDC aimed its social reform
narrowly at Confederate veterans and their widows while the women’s
clubs had much broader social agendas. Each of the groups is significant,
however, in the varied ways they intertwined race, gender, reform, and the
x · Foreword
Johnson frames the women’s groups within the broad cultural, eco-
nomic, intellectual, and political history of the New South. For example,
she notes that both the SCFWC and the UDC organized after white
South Carolinians disenfranchised African American men and passed dis-
criminatory Jim Crow laws. “Clubwomen and other proponents of the
Confederate Celebration,” Johnson writes, “while not engaging in either
violence or vitriolic language, did help legitimize the Lost Cause around
Southern honor and gender ideals; they upheld segregation through their
telling of history, especially to children in schools.” White women studied
blacks as historical or sociological “problems,” not as subjects of philan-
thropy or uplift. Although unwilling to accept black clubwomen as peers,
they discussed the race question “because it implied inferiority on the part
of blacks and reinforced the white paternalism of whites that predomi-
nated their discourse on slavery.”
In response, black women used their special history—the role of Afri-
can Americans in overthrowing slavery—to fashion a past more American
than Southern. Black clubwomen celebrated African American heroes
and heroines like Frederick Douglass, Booker T. Washington, Phyllis
Wheatley, and Marian Anderson. In 1919 club members began a sub-
scription campaign to raise funds for a monument to black veterans of
World War I. Black women also took the lead in the 1920s in launching
South Carolina’s interracial movement. Though largely ignored by white
clubwomen, their black counterparts nonetheless fought tirelessly in con-
demning segregation and lynching. “Ultimately, however,” Johnson con-
cludes, “most of their projects concentrated on aiding those in the black
community who were in need, especially girls, rather than on agitating for
an end to discrimination.”
As elite and middle-class reformers, as Southerners, and, most impor-
tant, as women, South Carolina’s black and white clubwomen of the early
twentieth century championed similar projects, employed similar strate-
gies, and experienced similar frustrations. Despite shared agendas and
apparent parallels between the two groups, deep historical and racial
forces divided them. As Johnson’s well-crafted study suggests, white club-
women created a Southern identity through Confederate culture; black
clubwomen challenged this culture but struggled to establish their re-
spectability. Both found their contributions to Southern reform circum-
scribed by the color line.
When I finished my dissertation, Anne Firor Scott told me that the best
way to turn it into a book was to set it aside and begin writing again.
Although I did not take her advice, this book has indeed taken several
years and much rewriting. I would like to thank the many people who
supported this work throughout that process.
I could never have completed the research without the aid of diligent
and patient librarians and archivists, notably those in the interlibrary loan
departments of UCLA, Miami University of Ohio, the University of Cin-
cinnati, and Northeastern Illinois University. Archivists have assisted me
in my research throughout the Carolinas, at the South Carolina Historical
Society, the Charleston Library Society, Avery Research Center for the
Study of African American History and Culture, the Laurens County Li-
brary, and the Darlington County Historical Society. Archivists were
also helpful at the special collections departments at Duke University, the
University of South Carolina Caroliniana Library, the American Jewish
Archives at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, and Winthrop Univer-
sity. I am particularly grateful to Gina Price White at Winthrop Univer-
sity for her unflagging aid. Morgan Davis at the General Federation of
Women’s Clubs archives provided me with the first names of several mar-
ried women.
I am most appreciative to the residents of Orangeburg, Columbia, and
Spartanburg who agreed to meet with me to discuss the early days of the
South Carolina Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs and Marion Wil-
kinson, including Geraldine Zimmerman, Louise Robinson, Emma Cas-
selberry, Lavonia Atkinson, Charlie May Campbell, and Robert Evans. I
am also grateful to Barbara Jenkins of South Carolina State University,
who gave me a tour of Orangeburg and led me to various sources on
Marion Wilkinson and the Sunlight Club.
The University of California–Los Angeles, Miami University, and the
xiv · Acknowledgments
This book could not have been written without the many friends and
family members who have encouraged me and listened to me talk about
South Carolina women for years. Raising young children, teaching, and
writing have been challenging at times, and their friendship enabled me to
persevere. I thank especially Cincinnati friends Nancy and Terry Koritz,
Carolyn and David Livingston, Lisa and John Thaler, Lynn and Mark
Tinsey, and Tony and Ronna Ueber. In Evanston I am buoyed up by
“Salon” members Sheila McGuire, Joan Emrich, Connie Hanson, Karen
Angotti, and Janet Henry. Various family and friends hosted me during
my travels to the South for research, including friends Jennifer and Jose
Torres, in Durham; my sister-in-law and brother-in-law Gina and Alvin
Wells, in Durham; my aunt and uncle Camy and Robert Scalera, at Pawley’s
Island; the Vallone family, while on vacation at Kiawah Island; my sister-
in-law and brother-in-law Meghan and Jeff Johnson, in Los Angeles;
Kathleen Clark, in Atlanta; and especially my mother-in-law, Anne M.
Johnson, in Columbia, with whom I stayed many nights. Their support,
along with that of my siblings, Andrew, Monica, and Anne Marie Infosino,
and my parents, Joseph and Dorothy Infosino, sustained me throughout
this process more than they know.
My daughters, Darci, Sophie, and Elise, were born during the revision
process; their smiles heartened me. Everything I do, I do for them. Fi-
nally, I thank my husband, Don. He supports my history habit, makes me
laugh, and makes me think. For his love and generosity, I am profoundly
grateful.
Chapter 1
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