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 Encyclopedia of
Ancient Egypt

third edition
 Encyclopedia of
Ancient Egypt

third edition

Margaret R. Bunson
 Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Third Edition

Copyright © 2012, 2002, 1991 by Margaret R. Bunson

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized

in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems,
without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact:

Facts On File, Inc.

An Imprint of Infobase Learning
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New York NY 10001

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bunson, Margaret.
Encyclopedia of ancient Egypt / Margaret R. Bunson. — 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8160-8216-2 (alk. paper)
1. Egypt—Civilization—To 332 B.C.—Dictionaries. 2. Egypt—
Antiquities—Dictionaries. I. Title.
DT58.B96 2011
932.003—dc23 2011026433

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Excerpts included herewith have been reprinted by permission of the

copyright holders; the author has made every effort to contact copyright
holders. The publisher will be glad to rectify, in future editions, any errors or
omissions brought to their notice.

Text design by Joan Toro

Maps and genealogies by Dale Williams and Patricia Meschino
Composition by Hermitage Publishing Services
Cover printed by Yurchak Printing, Landisville, Pa.
Book printed and bound by Yurchak Printing, Landisville, Pa.
Date printed: January 2012
Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

 Dedicated to the memory of
Dr. Rafael Zamora of Aguadilla, Puerto Rico
 Contents
List of Illustrations and Maps
viii

Introduction
xi

Historical Overview
xiii

Geographical Overview
xxi

Chronology of Major Events

xxvii

Entries A to Z
1

Appendix: How to Study Ancient Egypt

479

Glossary
486

Select Bibliography
491

Index
497
List of Illustr ations
and Maps
Photographs and Illustrations
The mortuary temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel 5
Reconstruction of the sun temple of Niuserré (Izi) at Abusir 7
Temple remains from Seti I’s cenotaph at Abydos 8
A tomb display of New Kingdom agriculture 15
The ruins of Old Alexandria 29
The warrior pharaoh Amenemhet III 36
Amenhotep, Son of Hapu 38
A statue of the Old Kingdom pyramid builder Khafre 57
The canon of the human figure 58
Monumental figures at Abu Simbel 61
Massive temple columns, supports used at a shrine of Horus 63
A silver denarius struck in honor of Octavian (Augustus) 69
The bark of Amun, from a temple relief in Thebes 74
An illustration of daily life from the Book of the Dead 82
Animal burial places in Bubastis 83
Byssus, the fine linen of Egypt 86
Encounter between Cambyses II and Psammetichus III 89
A chariot design from a New Kingdom temple relief 93
A relief depicting Cleopatra VII 96
The Colossi of Memnon 99
The Great Pyramid at Giza 100
The crowns of Egypt’s kings 101
Darius I 105
Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri 108
A detail of Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri 108
The ruins of Deir el-Medina, the Valley of the Kings 110
The opening to the shrine of Hathor at Dendereh 112
The deities of the Elephantine and the first cataract of the Nile 142
Wall paintings of Egyptian religious festival 151
A relief of workers caging wild geese from the Nile marshes 154

viii
 List of Illustrations and Maps   ix

The watcher on the horizon, the Great Sphinx 162

The opening to the temple of Isis at Philae 163
Renditions of the god Sobek and other deities 164
A procession of divine beings at Abydos 165
A pantheon of divine beings in the White Chapel at Karnak 166
The mythical creature saget, found on a tomb wall in Beni Hasan 167
Columns honoring the goddess Hathor at Dendereh 172
The Dendereh temple of the goddess Hathor 173
Hatshepsut’s Karnak apartment 174
Heh, the god of eternity 180
Horus, the great deity of Egypt 190
Hypostyle columns displayed in the temple of Luxor 194
Columns leading to an interior chamber in the Isis temple at Philae 205
A Spirit Boat 209
A nighttime image of the great temple complex at Karnak 216
A section of the great religious complex at Thebes 218
The Great Pyramid at Giza—Khufu’s monument 227
Hieroglyphs, the writing of ancient Egyptians 234
The great temple pylon gates of Luxor 245
Medinet Habu, the migdol complex of Ramesses III at Thebes 257
Mummy wigs 274
The golden mortuary mask of King Tut’ankhamun 278
Wall painting using pigments derived from Egypt’s natural resources 285
The monument honoring Queen Nefertari Merymut 294
An obelisk of the New Kingdom 309
A cenotaph temple honoring the deity Osiris and eternity 312
An Osiride pillar, a statue of Ramesses II 313
The Persea Tree on a bas-relief from the Ramesseum 327
A limestone relief of Amenhotep III in his war chariot 331
The temple of Isis at Philae 332
Cow goddess Hathor protecting Psammetichus II 337
An engraving of Ptolemy I 340
A portrait of Ptolemy II, called Philadelphus 342
A pylon from the temple of Isis at Philae 346
Passageway into the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza 348
The burial complex of Khafre (Chephren) at Giza 350
Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaten 354
Ramesses II depicted in a colossal statue in the Luxor temple 359
Ramesseum columns in the funerary monument of Ramesses II 364
The complex at Saqqara of the Step Pyramid of Djoser 380
Rendering of a sarcophagus in a tomb at Thebes 382
A column from the White Chapel, built at Karnak by Senwosret I 394
An oil portrait of Senwosret III 395
The mummified head of Seti I 399
x   List of Illustrations and Maps

Head of Pharaoh Shabaka 401

The shabtis in the burial chamber of King Tut’ankhamun 401
Canopic coffin of King Shoshenq II 404
A relief depicting life on the Nile in the Middle Kingdom 412
Golden tableware from the Nineteenth Dynasty 414
The Step Pyramid at Saqqara 420
Amun as a ram protecting King Taharqa 423
Obelisk at the ruins of Tanis 425
A temple kiosk at Philae in the Ptolemaic Period 429
Columned corridors dating to the New Kingdom 431
Luxor temple at Thebes 434
Tomb paintings depicting Ramesses II 440
A papyrus tomb text from the Book of the Dead 441
A false door in a tomb from the Old Kingdom 442
Tuthmosis III, the “Napoleon of Egypt” 451
A relief depicting Ramesses II in battle array 466
Tuthmosis III, one of the greatest warrior-kings of Egypt 469
Khamerernebty, the consort of Menkauré of the Old Kingdom 473
Relief of Xerxes I 475

Maps
Land of the Nile: Ancient Egypt vi
Geography of ancient Egypt xxii
Alexandria 30
Plan of the fortress of Buhen 84
Temple complex at Deir el-Bahri 109
Egyptian Asiatic Empire under Tuthmosis III, 1450 b.c.e. 138
Layout of the Giza plateau 160
Layout of the massive Karnak complex 217
Temple of Sobek and Haroeris (Horus) at Kom Ombo 230
Temple complex at Luxor 246
Natural resources of ancient Egypt 286
Egypt under the Ptolemies, ca. 250 b.c.e. 341
Sacred sites in Egypt, ca. 2600 b.c.e.–300 c.e. 430
Valley of the Kings 458
 Introduction
The study of an ancient civilization can be an educa- discoveries and research results. This is what this third
tional and fulfilling activity that makes one aware of ele- edition of The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt sets out to
ments of culture and civilization that have been blurred accomplish.
in the modern era. A nation such as Egypt, which has The third edition of The Encyclopedia of Ancient
survived as a united people for more than 3,000 years Egypt compiles around 2,000 entries on every aspect
through countless wars, natural disasters, and chang- of ancient Egyptian life and civilization spanning liter-
ing political scenes, offers a dazzling array of vibrant ally thousands of years of history. The entries have been
personalities, artistic heights, and profound spiritual updated with the most recent scholarship. They are
realities. written and organized in a way that makes the material
The royals of the ancient Nile, the men and women easily accessible and beneficial both to students and to
who ruled over the Land of the Two Kingdoms, had an other readers who have an interest in Egyptian history.
unprecedented awareness of their own destinies. Their The front matter now includes a historical overview,
reigns were dominated by vigor and daring because they a geographical overview, and a chronology of major
knew that the people of the Nile Valley shared and sup- events. At the end of the book the reader will find a glos-
ported their vision of the nation and the rule of the gods. sary, a revised reading list, and a new guide on How to
Charting the night skies, the first astronomers of Study Ancient Egypt.
Egypt named the various constellations of the stars and These introductory materials serve as the first
recognized that human beings on earth were linked to bridge to the entries, which receive more detailed treat-
these heavenly bodies not only during their brief life ment in the A-to-Z section. Every entry, especially the
spans but in eternal realms after death. At the same major ones, has been updated to reflect the recent dis-
time, the Nile River, streaming northward on its jour- coveries, the return of artifacts to Egypt, and the prog-
ney out of the heart of Africa, taught the Egyptians the ress made in research around the world. Key overview
necessity of cooperation, moderation, and dedication in entries, such as those on administration, law, art and
order to survive the floods that arrived with Sirius, the architecture, family life, health and sickness, science,
Dog Star, in the night skies. and warfare, have been significantly expanded. The
When first published by Facts On File in 1991, The entries also offer revised reading lists at the end. As with
Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt was the first comprehen- previous editions, the volumes chosen for both the sug-
sive A-to-Z reference to the more than 5,000-year period gested readings at the end of entries and the book list in
of ancient Egyptian civilization. A new edition was the back matter are intended for the general reader and
released in 2002 that was marked by extensive revisions are deliberately restricted to English-language editions.
and updating, but the encyclopedia remained faithful Nevertheless, the volumes chosen represent some of the
to its essential purpose of offering the reader a compre- most up-to-date works available for the specific topics,
hensive reference to the personalities, topics, issues, and and all of them are recommended. New maps and illus-
important sites constituting the remarkable civilization trations are sprinkled throughout.
that developed and flourished along the Nile. As with earlier editions, in keeping with the pre-
It is one of the realities of reference publishing— ferred method of dating for modern historical works,
especially when covering a topic that is subject to ongo- the system of dates according to b.c. (before Christ) and
ing research and fieldwork by archaeologists—that over a.d. (anno Domini, “in the year of the Lord”) has been
time there is a need to update titles by integrating new changed to b.c.e. (before the common era) and c.e. (of

xi
xii   Introduction

the common era). The intention is to make this book Researching this remarkable ancient civilization and
consistent with other works on the subject and for pur- reading the works it produced has been a privilege and
poses of consistent dating in the Facts On File database. a lifelong adventure. It would be impossible to describe
The editorial revision of the dating system is undertaken my gratitude for this experience without thanking two
despite the personal preferences of the author. people from Facts On File: Claudia Schaab, executive
The introductory sections to the front matter are editor, and Melissa Cullen-DuPont, associate editor. I
ideal for the reader who wants first to have an over- am genuinely grateful for their dedication and patience
view of the extensive timeline of ancient Egyptian his- as I labored to bring the work on this new edition to its
tory. Once familiar with the general outline of the completion. With the encouragement and dedication of
civilization’s history, the entries on general topics (such these individuals, I am delighted to be able to offer the
as administration, religion, etc.) are good places to turn splendors and the mysteries of ancient Egypt to another
to next, followed by the biographical entries. The latter generation of readers.
will also be helpful in introducing other topics and areas
of interest that are related to the efforts and achieve-
ments of these pharaohs and queens.
 Historical
Overview
Called the “gift of the Nile,” Egypt evolved in isolation ture in Egypt were marked by the development of tech-
on the northeastern section of the African continent. nological advances, including the use of flake tools.
The name Egypt is the modern version of Aigyptos, the The Asterian culture, associated with the Mous-
Greek word derived from the Egyptian for the city of terian, used bows and arrows and was widespread in
Memphis (Hiku Ptah, which translates to the “Mansion Maghreb and in the southern Sahara. Then, the Khor-
of the Soul.”) Egyptians call their land Msr today, and moussan culture, named for the Khor Musa, near Wadi
in Pharaonic times it was designated Khem or Khemet, Halfa (a site located near modern-day Sudan), appeared
which translates to the “Black Land” between the ca. 45,000 b.c.e. The Khormoussans, who in earlier
Deshret, the red Deserts. times lived in the deserts, encamped in river valleys and
Because of its geographical position on the African followed wild herds.
continent, and because of its relative isolation, Egypt From ca. 15,000 to 10,000 b.c.e., what is known
developed in a unique fashion. The natural defenses of as the Qadan phase moved to the Neolithic stage of
the cataracts of the Nile and the eastern and western development at Wadi Halfa; at Elkab, a site located on
deserts kept the land comparatively free of foreign domi- the east bank of the Nile; and in the Faiyum, a natu-
nation in the early stages of growth and confederation. ral depression extending along the western bank. The
The Nile was the primary factor in this development, Qadan phase was marked by hunting and gathering that
as the region offered no other rivers and little rainfall. included grains, as well as the creation of stone tools.
The annual inundation provided a bountiful agricultural Along with several others near Helwan, which serves
economy and also prompted a remarkable sense of coop- as a southern suburb of modern-day Cairo, these settle-
eration among the Egyptians. This spirit illuminated ments developed improved weaponry and used agri-
much of their religious and political thinking and left an cultural plots alongside the usual hunting and fishing
imprint on their lives and on their future. routines. Pottery and baskets appeared, and people
began to use necropolises, or burial sites, as well as
Predynastic Period other funerary practices.
The Predynastic Period was the era in which hunters By 3500 b.c.e. the Naqada III, or Gerzean B, cultures
and gatherers abandoned the heights and plateaus to were in place in the Nile Valley alongside the Ma’adi, or
enter the lush valley of the Nile, where they discovered so-called Dynasty 0, cultures. In both of these cultures
both safety and abundant resources, the combination regional kingdoms had been established, and people of
of which induced them to begin settlements. These first this time used slate palettes for burials.
settlements were not uniform throughout Egypt, and a The Neolithic cultures of the Badarian, Tassan, and
list of Predynastic Period cultural sequences has been Faiyum A and B were at Badari, Hemania, Merimda Beni
developed to trace the development of cultural achieve- Salami, and in the Faiyum by 5540 b.c.e. These were
ments in Upper and Lower Egypt. followed by the Faiyum A and B cultures, the Naqada I
Evolution and development took place in the Nile (or Amratian) cultures, and the Fassan cultures. A dual
Valley as early as ca. 120,000 b.c.e. The Achulean cul- ceramic development took place, with people using the-
ture appeared in the region, extending their range until riomorphic (animal-shaped) vessels for burial. People of
ca. 90,000 b.c.e. Homo erectus gave way to Homo sapiens this period also used copper in architecture, along with
ca. 10,000 b.c.e., and the Mousterian culture was active mined gold and tin, which were discovered in the East-
by ca. 50,000 b.c.e. The last periods of the Achulean cul- ern Desert. Settlements started quarries, and flint was

xiii
xiv   Historical Overview

commonly used in the manufacture of weaponry. The tains who provided them with leadership. The sequence
first architectural forms appeared in this age, and settle- indicates the beginning of communities in the north.
ments planned and erected towns.
The Naqada II, or Gerzean A, Period began ca. 4000 Merimda (4300–3700 b.c.e.),
b.c.e., along with the Omari B culture. Settlements at el- Merimda, a site on the western edge of the Delta, cov-
Gerze and elsewhere displayed ceramic changes in this ered a vast territory with layers of cultural debris that
development, with style, motifs, and the use of natu- give indications of up to 600 years of habitation. The
ral images emerging. People of the time used boats and people of this cultural sequence lived in pole-framed
adopted standards as clan or regional totems, fashioned huts with windbreaks, and some used semisubterra-
palettes out of schist, and produced funerary items. Small nean residences, building the walls high enough to stand
slates used for cosmetics became popular in the Nile Val- above ground. The small habitations were laid out in
ley, and large and elaborate grave sites were developing. rows, possibly part of a circular pattern. Granaries were
The Naqada II, or Gerzean A, Period signaled a turn- composed of clay jars or baskets, buried up to the neck
ing point in Predynastic Period Egypt. One of the aspects in the ground. People of the Merimda sequence probably
of this cultural event was contact with other nations buried the dead on the sites, but little evidence of grave
beyond Egypt’s borders. Trade was conducted with the goods has been recovered.
Sinai region on Egypt’s eastern border and with southern
Palestine. Cultural aspects also included the rise of the El-Omari (3700–3400 b.c.e.)
nome (province) families, the use of stone figures both as El-Omari is a site between modern Cairo and Helwan.
art and in burial rituals, and the centralization of power. The pottery from this sequence was red or black and
Two cities dominated in this era: Buto in the north unadorned, as revealed by the vases and lipped vessels
and Hierakonpolis in the south. In these cities, clans archaeologists have discovered. People of this area made
were in place, the members of which built temples and flake and blade tools, as well as millstones. They con-
developed a priesthood for the worship of such deities as structed oval shelters, with poles and woven mats, and
Horus. Other cities, such as Tell Edfu, were rising, and probably had granaries.
the system of nomes, or provinces, was in place.
Ma’adi (3400–3000 b.c.e.)
Lower Egypt Ma’adi, a site located to the northwest of the El-Omari
Faiyum A (4400–3900 b.c.e.) sequence location, contained a large area that was once
Faiyum A was a cultural sequence that emerged on the occupied by the people of this sequence. People here
northern and northeastern shores of an ancient lake in constructed oval huts and windbreaks, with wooden
the Faiyum district, possibly seasonal in habitation. The posts placed in the ground to support red and wattle
site was occupied by agriculturalists, but it is evident that walls, sometimes covered with mud. Archaelogists dis-
they depended upon fishing and hunting and may have covered jars and grindstones beside the houses. There
moved with the changes of the yearly migrations of large were also two rectangular buildings there, with subter-
mammals. People of this sequence caught fish with har- ranean chambers, stairs, hearths, and roof poles.
poons and beveled points, but they did not use fishhooks. People of this site used three cemeteries, including
People of this time erected mat or reed huts on the one at Wadi Digla, although archaeologists have found
sheltered sides of mounds beside fertile grounds. There remains of some unborn children in the settlement. Ani-
were underground granaries, removed from the houses mals were also buried there. The Ma’adi sequence people
to higher ground, no doubt to protect the stored mate- were more sedentary in their lifestyle, probably involved
rials from flooding. Archaeologists have gathered some in agriculture and in some herding activities. A copper
evidence at these sites to indicate that the people kept ax head and the remains of copper ore (the oldest dated
sheep, goats, and possibly domesticated cattle. The gra- find of this nature in Egypt) were also discovered. There
naries also showed remains of emmer wheat and a form is some evidence of Naqada II influences from Upper
of barley. Egypt, and there are some imported objects from the
The stone tools used by the people of Faiyum A Palestinian culture on the Mediterranean, probably the
were large, with notches and denticulates. People of this result of trade.
sequence set flints into wooden handles and used arrow-
heads. They also wove baskets for the granaries and for Upper Egypt
daily needs and manufactured a variety of rough linen. Badarian (4500–4000 b.c.e.)
Pottery in the Faiyum A sites was made out of coarse Badarian was one of the cultural groups living in the
clay, normally in the form of flat dishes and bag-shaped Nile region in the areas of el-Hammamiya, el-Matmar,
vessels. Some were plain and some had red slip. el-Mostagedda, and at the foot of the cliffs at el-Badari.
The people of this era appear to have lived in micro- Archaeologists have discovered some Badarian arti-
bands, single and extended family groups, with chief- facts at Erment, Hierankopolis, and in the Wadi Ham-
 Historical Overview   xv

mamat. A semisedentary people, the Badarians lived in are evident in the pottery, which began to include tilted
tents made of skins, or in huts of reeds hung on poles. spouts and handles. A light-colored pottery emerged
They cultivated wheat and barley and collected fruits in Naqada II, composed of clay and calcium carbonate.
and herbs, using the castor bean for oil. The people of Originally the vessels had red patterns, changing later
this sequence wove cloth and used animal skins as furs on to scenes of animals, boats, and trees. It is prob-
and as leather. The bones of cattle, sheep, and goats able that such pottery was mass-produced at certain
were found on the sites, and people of time time buried settlements for trading purposes. Copper was evident
domesticated and wild animals in the necropolis areas. in weapons and in jewelry. The people of this sequence
Weapons and tools included flint arrowheads, used gold foil and silver. Flint blades were sophisticated,
throwing sticks, push planes, and sickle stones. These and people made beads and amulets out of metals and
were found in the gravesites, discovered on the edge lapis lazuli.
of the desert on the eastern side of the Nile between Funerary pottery indicates advanced mortuary
el-Matmar and el-Etmantieh. The graves were oval or cults. People built brick houses to form settlements;
rectangular and were roofed. People placed food offer- these small single-chambered residences had their own
ings in the graves and covered the corpses with hides enclosed courtyards. A settlement erected a temple with
or reed matting. Rectangular stone palettes were part of battered walls at Hierakonpolis. Graves erected in this
the grave offerings, along with ivory and stone objects. period were also lined with wooden planks and con-
The manufactured pottery of the Badarians demon- tained small niches for offerings. Some were built with
strates sophistication and artistry, with semicircular plastered walls, which were painted.
bowls dominating the styles. Vessels that people used for
daily life were normally brown and of either a smooth or The Predynastic Period
rough texture. The quality pottery was thinner than any The cultural sequences just discussed were particu-
other forms manufactured in the Predynastic Period, lar aspects of a growing civilization along the Nile,
combed and burnished before firing. The most unique prompted to cooperate with one another by that great
type was a pottery painted red with a black interior and waterway. The Nile, the most vital factor in the lives of
a lip, formed while the vessel was cooling. the Egyptians, was not always bountiful. It could be a
raging source of destruction if allowed to surge uncon-
Naqada I (4000–3500 b.c.e.) trolled. Irrigation and diverting projects were necessary
Naqada I (Amratian) was located from Deir Tasa to to tame the river and to provide water throughout the
Nubia, including Hierakonpolis and Naqada, with a agricultural seasons. The river, its bounty, and the rich
large concentration of sites evident between Naqada and soil it deposited gave birth to a nation.
Abydos. The people of this sequence erected oval huts Sometime in the late part of the Predynastic Period,
(a type used in Naqada II as well), containing hearths, leaders from Upper Egypt made attempts to conquer the
and were wattled and daubed. There were no windows northern territories. Upper Egypt probably was united
evident, but these could have been placed in the upper by that time, but Lower Egypt’s political condition is not
levels. Archaeologists have also found windbreaks and known for certain. Rulers such as Scorpion I, Narmer,
cooking pots. Hierakonpolis, and Thinis have been documented, but
The tools of the people were bifacial flint knives scholars have not determined their individual efforts
with cutting edges and rhomboidal knives. Basalt vases and successes. There was, however, a renaissance of
were found, along with mace heads, slate palettes, and the arts, a force that would come to flower in the Early
ivory carvings. People of the time carved ritual figures Dynastic Period (also called the Archaic Period), or
depicting animals and humans out of ivory or molded Dynasty 0.
them in clay. A black-topped pottery gave way to red
wares in this sequence, some with white cross designs or The Early Dynastic Period (Archaic)
scenes. Metal was very rare. 2920–2575 b.c.e.
The era of the founding of the Egyptian state and the
Naqada II (3500–3000 b.c.e.) start of its ruling dynasties was dynamic and prolonged.
Naqada II (Gerzean A) was a cultural sequence that The First Dynasty, begun at Memphis by Aha (Menes),
existed in sites from the Delta to the Nubian border, who was responsible for organizing a project to change
with most of the habitation centers located south of Aby- the course of the Nile in order to drain a plain for the
dos. This sequence is marked by the changes brought capital, was marked by significant cultural achieve-
about in contacts with other peoples and other lands. ments. Aha probably cemented his claims to the throne
The period also indicates growing institutions and by marrying a Memphite heiress and by instituting or
traditions. reinforcing the previous modes of governmental and
Accelerated trade brought advances in the artistic religious traditions that would become unique aspects
skills of the people of this era, and Palestinian influences of Egypt’s heritage. Papyrus, writing, and a calendar
xvi   Historical Overview

were in use, and linear measurements, mathematics, and expeditions ventured as far south as northern modern
astronomy were practiced. A census, tax assessments, Sudan and to the shores of the Red Sea. Mining opera-
the reestablishment of boundaries after the yearly Nile tions and other activities for extracting foreign natural
inundations, and the development of new astronomical resources demanded a military presence and a commit-
instruments improved Egyptian life and furthered schol- ment of men and materials. By the close of the Old King-
arship. The rulers of the Early Dynastic Period raided dom the defensive posture of the Egyptian military was
Libya and the Sinai and began the exploitation of vital altered by General Weni (fl. 23rd century b.c.e), who
natural resources. These rulers also conducted some began aggressive campaigns using veteran troops and
punitive expeditions in Nubia, as well as the annexation mercenaries.
of land around Aswan. The last two dynasties of this historical period were
It cannot be verified that the first rulers of this unable to resist the growing independence of the prov-
period accomplished the actual unification of Egypt. inces. The Seventh Dynasty was short-lived (having no
They ruled portions of the land and tried to gain con- real power), and the Eighth Dynasty could not maintain
trol of the nomes (provinces) that were still indepen- its grip on the various nomes and territories that were
dent. Regions such as the northeastern Delta remained rebelling against this last line of kings in an effort to
outside of their domination for a long period, as did establish political alliances.
other territories. It is assumed that Kha’Sekhemwy, It is now known that changes taking place within
the last king of the Second Dynasty (ca. 2649 b.c.e.), the Delta Nile channels left some areas stranded as
was responsible for the unification of Upper and Lower arid wastelands, with people in these regions suffering
Egypt. Kha’sekhemwy also started a settlement at Buhen through severe drought. Riots as a result of anger on
in Nubia. Religious texts permeated Egyptian society the part of the displaced and hurting brought about the
during this period, and elaborate tomb complexes based deaths of the local ruling aristocrats.
upon religious beliefs were constructed by the rulers,
who also built secondary tombs called cenotaphs. Egypt The First Intermediate Period
was governed firmly by these pharaohs, with the aid of (2134–2040 b.c.e.)
nome officials and dedicated administrators. The First Intermediate Period was an age of turmoil and
Art and architecture, especially the forms associated chaos that began with the collapse of the Old Kingdom
with mortuary rituals, showed an increased degree of and ended with the military campaigns of Mentuhotep
innovation and skill. The first evidence of the use of stone II (2061–2010 b.c.e.) of the Eleventh Dynasty. Following
in large monuments dates to this period, and the conven- the Seventh and Eighth Dynasties, the capital shifted to
tions of Egyptian art developed at the same time. Cities the south to Herakleopolis, in the Faiyum. This city was
flourished, and temples were raised for the local cults and the home of the rulers of the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties
for the emerging national deities. The achievements of the (called Khety by some and Aktoy by others), and 18 rul-
Early Dynastic Period culminated in the splendid mortu- ers of this line are listed in part or in whole in the Turin
ary complex erected for Djoser (r. 2630–2611 b.c.e.) by Canon—12 papyrus pages, formed as a roll, describ-
Imhotep, the chancellor, or vizier, of the pharaoh. ing the finest chronological list of Egyptian rulers. The
The Egyptians believed in material comforts and first of the royal line, Khety (fl. 22nd century b.c.e) was
enjoyed amusements and pleasures, tempered by the so ferocious in attempting to gain control of the nomes
ideals of moderation, quietude, and a respect for the wis- surrounding his capital that he earned a reputation for
dom of elders. While they were obedient to superiors, cruelty.
the Egyptians firmly acknowledged an unprecedented This was also the period in which the Instructions
awareness of human freewill. They translated this aspect for Merikaré and the advice of the “Eloquent Peasant”
of freewill into personal responsibility for one’s actions, were written. Instructions for Merikaré is believed to be
summarized by the concept of ma’at. Sages such as the work of Khety III (r. ca. 2100 b.c.e.), who designed
Ptah-Hotep (2), who is reported as having lived in this it as a moral treatise for his son, Merikaré, who in turn
era, wrote didactic literature extolling the virtues to the succeeded on the throne at Hierakonpolis during this
nation. turbulent time of rival kingdoms. The “Eloquent Peas-
ant” was a popular rags-to-riches account of eloquent
The Old Kingdom (2575–2134 b.c.e.) commoner Khunianupu’s adventures and sayings. (The
The great pyramid builders of the Fourth Dynasty account is included in four New Kingdom [1550–1070
(2575–2465 b.c.e.) erected monuments, which rise from b.c.e.] papyri, today housed in Berlin and London.)
the sands of Giza as eternal testaments to the vigor and The end of the First Intermediate Period came
dynamism of this age, and sent exploratory and puni- when the Inyotef line, which ruled the southern nomes
tive expeditions into Libya, Syria, and Nubia. A navy in ­Thebes, began an assault on Herakleopolis. The last
came into use in this era and land-based forces were fre- ruler of the Tenth Dynasty lost his capital to Mentuho-
quently engaged. Quarries and mines were opened. New tep II, an Inyotef, in 2040 b.c.e.
 Historical Overview   xvii

The Middle Kingdom Period istration, but they were increasingly harassed by the
(2040–1640 b.c.e.) growing number of Asiatics in the northeastern Delta,
This historical period, an era of great artistic gains and and in time the Thirteenth Dynasty collapsed and its
stability in Egypt, began with the fall of Herakleopo- rulers served as vassals to the new foreign regime of the
lis to Mentuhotep II. A strong government fostered a Hyrsos.
climate in which a great deal of creative activity took In Xois, in the western Delta, the Fourteenth
place. The greatest monument of this period was on the Dynasty, which was a contemporary of the Thirteenth
western bank of the Nile, at a site called Deir el-Bahri, Dynasty, maintained independence of a sort and pro-
within the city of Thebes. There Mentuhotep II erected mulgated a long line of kings (76 according to the third
his vast mortuary complex, a structure that would later century b.c.e. Egyptian historian Manetho). Scarcely
influence the architects of the New Kingdom (1550– any evidence remains of this royal line, but its rulers are
1070 b.c.e.). mentioned in the Turin Canon.
The Mentuhotep royal line encouraged all forms of
art and relied upon military prowess to establish new The Second Intermediate Period
boundaries and new mining operations. The Mentuho- (1640–1550 b.c.e.)
teps, like their ancestors the Inyotefs, were fierce com- The Second Intermediate Period was an era of struggle
petitors on the battlefield. They campaigned in Nubia, and confusion, marked by the presence of the Hyksos,
Libya, the Sinai, Palestine, and perhaps even visited the Asiatics who conquered the northeastern territories
Syria on a punitive campaign. The Mentuhoteps were of Egypt. The historian Manetho stated that the Asiatics,
followed by a royal line that was started by a usurper, whom he called the Hyksos, arrived in a whirlwind of
Amenemhet I. Having served as a vizier and military devastation to conquer the land. The Hyksos did come
commander for Egypt, Amenemhet took the throne to the Nile and did assume kingly roles, but in actuality
and then sailed a fleet of 40 galleys up and down the their introduction into the land was gradual and depen-
Nile to put down rebellious nomes. He built his new dent upon many factors.
capital at Itj-Tawy, south of Giza and Saqqara. He also Slavery had been introduced as an institution into
established a “Wall of the Prince,” a series of fortresses Egypt during the Middle Kingdom, whose last rul-
on Egypt’s eastern and western borders. Both Amen- ers held their power from Memphis or Thebes. While
emhet I and the Wall of the Prince were supposedly Egypt’s military powers declined, the clamor for slaves
foretold by a sage named Nefer Rohu (Neferti), who increased, especially for the feudal and priestly estates of
was reported to have lived in the Fourth Dynasty and the Delta and the Faiyum.
promised that a savior would appear to help Egypt in a The Asiatics, called the A’amu, Seteyu, or Hikau-
time of need. Khoswet (Manetho’s Hyksos), came willingly into Egypt
The Twelfth Dynasty pharaohs raided Syria and as mercenary border guards or as indentured servants,
Palestine and marched to the third cataract of the Nile because Egypt offered them opportunities. As their
to establish fortified posts. They sent expeditions to the numbers increased, they began to insinuate themselves
Red Sea, using the overland route to the coast and the into various positions of power. The Ipuwer Papyrus’s
path through the Wadi Timulat and the Bitter Lakes. To complaints about the presence in Egypt of the “Des-
stimulate the national economy, these rulers also began ert,” a reference to the Hyksos, provides an image of the
vast irrigation and hydraulic projects in the Faiyum to changes taking place. The Desert, the coarse nomads,
reclaim the lush fields there. The agricultural lands made consolidated their gains and opened Egypt to more and
available by these systems revitalized Egyptian life. more migrations from the Mediterranean region.
The rulers built vast pyramids at Itj-tawy and at The Fifteenth Dynasty, ruling from Avaris in the
Dashur, including the multichambered Labyrinth, which eastern Delta, was the royal line of the Hyksos. These
was an administrative center. Prompted by the leader- kings ruled from 1640 to 1532 b.c.e. A second group
ship of the royal family, it was an age of cultural and of Hyksos kings ruled contemporaneously as the Six-
literary achievement on the Nile that was later revered teenth Dynasty but exercised less political control and
by Egyptians as the nation’s golden age. By 1799 b.c.e., held limited territory. Both Asiatic royal lines ruled at
however, the royal line had waned. Amenemhet IV ruled the same time as the Seventeenth Dynasty, the kings of
for a decade, followed by Sobekneferu, the first woman Thebes, who maintained a tight grip on Upper Egypt.
to appropriate all the royal names of a pharaoh. Her The Seventeenth Dynasty is dated from ca. 1640 to 1550
reign lasted only four years, and the Thirteenth Dynasty b.c.e. and was entirely Egyptian.
came to power in a futile effort to retain a grip on the When the Hyksos and their allies were entrenched
nation. This royal line was listed in the Turin Canon, in the eastern Delta and were constructing their capi-
which credited between 50 and 60 rulers to a period of tal at Avaris, the Thebans maintained somewhat cordial
140 or more years. The rulers of this dynasty continued relations with them. The Hyksos sailed past Thebes on
to conduct building projects and governmental admin- their way to the lands below the cataracts of the Nile in
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