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Survivors and Exiles
Survivors
and
Exiles
Yiddish Culture after
the Holocaust

Jan Schwarz

Wayne State University Press

Detroit
© 2015 by Wayne State University Press, Detroit,
Michigan 48201. All rights reserved. No part of this
book may be reproduced without formal permission.
Manufactured in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging Number: 2015934520

ISBN 978-0-8143-3905-3 (jacketed cloth)
ISBN 978-0-8143-3906-0 (ebook)
 Contents

Preface and Acknowledgments vii

Introduction 1

I. Ground Zero

1. Vilna: Avrom Sutzkever 15

2. Lodz: Chava Rosenfarb 44
3. Minsk-Mazowiecki: Leib Rochman 67

II. Transnational Ashkenaz

4. Dos poylishe yidntum: A Library of Hope and Destruction 92

5. 1953 – ​54: A Year in Yiddish Literature 118

III. Yiddish Letters in New York

6. A Poetics of Retrieval and Loss:

Aaron Zeitlin and Yankev Glatshteyn 143
7. Performing Yiddish Poetry at the 92nd Street Y 181
8. Prose of the Ashkenazi World:
Chaim Grade and Yitskhok Bashevis (I. B. Singer) 210
Conclusion 238
Appendix 1. List of Publications: Dos poylishe yidntum
(Polish Jewry, Buenos Aires, 1946 – ​66) 253
Appendix 2. Transliteration of Yiddish Texts
According to the YIVO System 269
Notes 291
Bibliography 325
Index 339

v
 Preface and Acknowledgments

As I work on this book, I am frequently asked whether it will be published

in Yiddish. Usually I shrug apologetically and reply that a contemporary
Yiddish readership would be miniscule for such a work. The question does
indicate, however, that there remains a deep memory of a vibrant, secular
Yiddish-speaking world that still existed in its final bloom only one gener-
ation ago. The shift in the Jewish world from a Yiddish cultural system that
catered to hundreds of thousands of people to today’s bifurcated English-
and Hebrew-speaking world of the Diaspora and Israeli communities
(including many other languages) indicates the radical transformation of the
Ashkenazi civilization after 1945. This book focuses on the latest chapter of
this civilization, following its destruction in Central and Eastern Europe in
the Holocaust.
Yiddish culture after the Holocaust provides a case study of the con-
tinuation, reconfiguration, and closure of an autonomous transnational net-
work, and its transformation into a culture of remembrance. This shift from a
future-oriented Yiddish culture — ​di klasikers, modernism, and mass media — ​
to a culture sustained by past-oriented retrieval and memory occurred during
the postwar period’s dramatic geopolitical changes. These included the cre-
ation of the State of Israel, the growing centrality of the North American
Jewish community, and the Iron Curtain’s division of Europe. In the first
two contexts and behind the Iron Curtain, Yiddish did continue to flourish
in a combination of its vernacular setting, translation, academia, and post-­
vernacular culture.
Like most contemporary Yiddish scholarship, this book is addressed to
a readership that is mostly unfamiliar with the basic tenets of Yiddish cul-
ture. As a result, I have combined the roles of a participant observer and
guide for outsiders to Yiddish culture. The question of what constitutes
authenticity hovers over Yiddish scholarship in its pursuit of knowledge and
reconstruction of cultural landscapes that have almost completely ceased to
exist. Like the Yiddish writers and performers who were forced to confront
a radically changed world and set of challenges after the Holocaust, today’s
Yiddish scholar is faced with the question of how to delineate a culture that

vii
viii Preface and Acknowledgments

has been relegated to memory. The postwar Yiddish writers and performers
continued to do their work in their mother tongue for a decimated but still
vibrant transnational network of Yiddish speakers. Today’s Yiddish scholar,
in contrast, functions more like an archaeologist, stripping layer after layer
of memory formations and critical methodologies that partly have distorted
our understanding of the internal processes that shaped Yiddish culture after
the Holocaust.
I have been guided by a set of values rooted in Yiddish culture. The
most important is that mame-loshn, the Yiddish mother tongue, is given vis-
ibility not only in translation and transliteration but in its original Hebrew
letters, as remains the case for most Yiddish print and performance culture.
To include the vernacular content in the layout of this book is a choice that
sets it apart from most other scholarly works in English. In this modest way,
I have tried to respond affirmatively, at least symbolically, to the question of
whether the book would be published in Yiddish.
The increasing availability of Yiddish source material on the internet
has greatly enhanced access to Yiddish culture. The fact that it is possible
to download and listen to a story or a song in Yiddish instantaneously on
the internet has significantly changed the ways in which Yiddish culture is
produced, circulated, and received. Particularly, the book’s inclusion of Yid-
dish cultural performance (lectures, interviews, public readings) has bene-
fited from the increasing online proliferation of Yiddish sources. Without
the tireless efforts of Yiddish cultural organizations such as the National
Yiddish Book Center (NYBC), and of journals and individuals who have
initiated Yiddish blogs, list-serves, Facebook pages, and YouTube videos,
this study would have missed a crucial feature of early twenty-first-century
Yiddish culture.

***
Without the support and guidance of a cadre of scholars from the incep-
tion of this book more than a decade ago, this work would have been much
more difficult if not impossible to write. It is the pleasure of exchange and
feedback in an international network of colleagues that turns it into a true
collaborative effort. Of course, all faults and mistakes are my responsibility
alone. Unless otherwise noted in the citations, all translations from the Yid-
dish are mine.
I would like to thank Professors David G. Roskies, Seth Wolitz, Abraham
Nowersztern, Rosemary Horowitz, Hana Wirth-Nesher, Alan Rosen, Jerold
Frakes, Monika Adamczyk-Garbowska, Alan Astro, Kathryn Heller­stein,
 Preface and Acknowledgments ix

Mikhail Krutikov, Gennady Estraykh, Anita Norich, Samuel Kassow, Cecile

Kuznitz, Michael Steinlauf, Jeffrey Shandler, Dan Miron, Janet Hadda, and
Miriam Isaacs for their support, inspiration, and help during the work on
the book. Thanks to Ron Finegold, the former archivist of the Jewish Public
Library in Montreal, who made the Avrom Tabatshnik interviews available
in the form of tape recordings (now digitized on the NYBC website). Thanks
to Steve Siegel, the former archivist at the 92nd Street Y in New York City,
who generously gave me access to the archive and recordings of the Yiddish
poetry readings that took place at the 92nd Street Y in the 1960s. Thanks to
the staff at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas for helping
me navigate the I. B. Singer archive.
Joseph Sherman z‫״‬l organized a conference on Yiddish after the Holo-
caust at the Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies, Yarnton Manor,
August 26 – ​28, 2003, which resulted in one of the first English-language
books about Yiddish culture after the Holocaust and included an early ver-
sion of chapter 5. Thanks to my co-editors, the Jewish historians Antony
Polonsky, Gabriel Finder, and Natalia Aleksiun, with whom I edited volume
20 of POLIN: Making Holocaust Memory (2008), which included a version of
chapter 4. Thanks to Professor Eric Selinger, DePaul University, with whom
I organized a conference about American Jewish multilingual literature at
the University of Chicago in October 2007, whose papers were published as
a special issue of Prooftexts (2010), which included chapter 7. Thanks to Pro-
fessor Shlomo Berger (Amsterdam) and Professor Marion Aptroot (Dus-
seldorf ), with whom I organized the European Yiddish workshop “Yiddish
Culture in the 20th Century,” in October 2012, at Lund University; and the
Centre de Recherches Historiques in Paris, which in June 2014 organized the
symposium “Writing the Destruction in the Polish-Jewish World from the
End of World War II to the Late 1960s: Productions, Trajectories, Networks.”
A sheynem dank to Professor Solon Beinfeld for his thorough reading of
the Yiddish quotes in the original and transliteration, and to Professor Abra-
ham Nowersztern for his incisive comments on an early draft of the manu-
script. Professor Yechiel Szeintuch’s (Hebrew University) work on Yiddish
and Hebrew Holocaust literature has been an inspiration for the conception
of the book. Thanks to doctoral candidate Malena Chinski (Buenos Aires),
who graciously provided additional items to the list of books in appendix 1.
I am particularly grateful to Kathryn Wildfong, editor-in-chief of Wayne
State University Press, for enabling me to create a beautiful book that adheres
to the highest scholarly standards; and to copyeditor Mindy Brown for her
meticulous corrections of the final manuscript in English and Yiddish.
x Preface and Acknowledgments

Thanks to the daughters of several Yiddish writers for their generous

permission to use photographs of their parents: Goldie Morgentaler, Leah
Strigler, Rivka Miriam. Thanks to Arnold Chekow, whose photographs of
Yiddish writers at the 92nd Street Y in the 1960s grace the book. Thanks to
the photographer Chuck Fishman, who generously gave me permission to
use his photograph of I. B. Singer. A hartsdikn dank to the painter Samuel
Bak, who created the cover illustration for the book and provided a photo-
graph of himself as a boy on the lap of Avrom Sutzkever in Vilna, July 1944.
Earlier versions of the book chapters have been published in various
journals and books. I thank their publishers and editors for giving permission
to reprint this material:
Chapter 1: “After the Destruction of Jewish Vilna: Abraham Sutzkev-
er’s Poetry, Testimony and Cultural Rescue Work, 1944 – ​1946,” East European
Jewish Affairs 35, no. 2, ed. John Klier (December 2005): 209 – ​25.
Chapter 3: “Blood Ties: Leib Rochman’s Yiddish War Diary,” in The
Memorial Books of Eastern European Jewry, ed. Rosemary Horowitz ( Jeffer-
son, NC: McFarland Press, 2010), 163 – ​82.
Chapter 4: “A Library of Hope and Destruction: The Yiddish Book
Series Dos poylishe yidntum, 1946 – ​1966,” and “Appendix: List of 175 Volumes
of Dos poylishe yidntum,” POLIN 20: Studies in Polish Jewry (2008): 173 – ​96.
Chapter 5: “1953/1954 — ​A Year in Yiddish Literature,” Studies in Contem-
porary Jewry 23, ed. Ezra Mendelsohn (2008): 185 – ​201.
Chapter 6: “The Voice of the Yiddish Poet: Avrom Ber Tabatshnik’s
Interview with Yankev Glatshteyn in New York, 1955,” in Yiddish after the
Holocaust, ed. Joseph Sherman (Oxford: Boulevard/Oxford Centre for He-
brew and Jewish Studies, 2004), 74 – ​91.
“Encounters with German Language and Literature in Yankev Glat-
shteyn’s Work,” in Between Two Worlds: Yiddish-German Encounters, ed. Jer-
emy Dauber and Jerold Frakes, Studia Rosenthaliana 41 (Amsterdam: Peeters,
2009), 197 – ​212.
Chapter 7: “Glatshteyn, Singer, Howe and Ozick: Performing Yiddish
Poetry at the 92 Street Y, 1963 – ​1969,” Prooftexts: A Journal of Jewish Literary
History 30, no. 1 (2010): 61 – ​96.
Chapter 8: “Confrontation and Elegy in the Novels of Chaim Grade,”
in The Multiple Voices of Modern Yiddish Culture, ed. Shlomo Berger, Studia
Rosenthaliana (Amsterdam: Menasseh Ben Israel Institute, 2007), 30 – ​55.
“ ‘Nothing but a Bundle of Paper’: Isaac Bashevis Singer’s Literary
Career in America,” in Leket: Jiddistik heute (Yiddish Studies Today/Yidishe
 Preface and Acknowledgments xi

shtudyes haynt), ed. Marion Aptroot, Efrat Gal-Ed, Roland Gruschka, and
Simon Neuberg (Dusseldorf: Dusseldorf University Press, 2012), 189 – ​207.
Conclusion: “The Holocaust and Postwar Yiddish Literature,” in Lit-
erature of the Holocaust, ed. Alan Rosen (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2013), 102 – ​17.

As with everything I write in English, it has been a true pleasure to have my

wife, Rabbi Rebecca Lillian, apply her outstanding editing skills to my work
on the book.
The book is dedicated to my father, Hersh Shmiel (Henning) Schwarz
(born 1927), biz hundert tsvantsik, and the memory of my uncles Moyshe Arn
(Moniek) Schwarz (1924 – ​2013) z‫״‬l and Dovid (David) Schwarz (1928 – ​2008)
z‫״‬l — ​three survivors of the kehile kedoyshe (holy community) of Piotrkow
Trybunalski, Poland.
 Introduction

In 1948 a thirty-five-year-old Yiddish poet, a survivor of the Vilna Ghetto

who arrives in the Land of Israel as an ole khadash (new immigrant), writes
a poem titled “Yiddish.” The poem consists of one sustained argument by
“my poetry brother with whiskers,” who questions the future of Yiddish. The
survivor poet confronts the attitudes of his poetry brother that have been
enshrined in the newly established Jewish state; views that marginalize and
even excise the very existence of Yiddish language and culture. Only via folk
song and jokes — ​such as the folksy lullaby “Rozhinkes mit mandlen” (Raisins
and Almonds) — ​is Yiddish visible in the Jewish state founded on biblical
soil and language. This negation of the Jewish Diaspora becomes a negation
of Yiddish, the Jewish Diaspora language par excellence.
The poet’s response is an outcry, a refusal to be rendered invisible and
sidelined by history. With his authority as a survivor and resistance fighter
from Vilna, the Jerusalem of Lithuania, he rhetorically asks where the rich
cultural inheritance of Yiddish will go to die. If their destruction is to take
place at the Western Wall in Jerusalem, the only remnant of the Second
Temple, then this survivor of der driter khurbn (the Third Holocaust follow-
ing the destructions of the first and second temples in Jerusalem) will use
the full potential of his poetry to create fiery, potent verse that will keep the
memory of Yiddish alive throughout the ages.

?‫ָזאל איך ָאנהײבן ֿפון ָאנהײב‬

‫ָזאל איך װי אברהם‬
?‫צעהאקן ַאלע געצן‬
ַ ‫ברודערשאֿפט‬
ַ ‫אױס‬
?‫לאזן איבערזעצן‬ָ ‫ָזאל איך זיך ַא לעבעדיקן‬
‫מײן צונג‬ַ ‫נֿפלאנצן‬
ַ ‫אײ‬ ַ ‫ָזאל איך‬
‫רװאנדלען‬ ַ ‫ֿפא‬
ַ ‫װארטן ביז‬ ַ ‫און‬
‫װעט זי זיך אין ָאֿבותדיקע‬
?‫מאנדלען‬ ַ ‫ראזשינקעס מיט‬ ָ
‫טאװעסדיקע‬ ָ ‫קא‬ ַ ‫ֿפאר א‬ַ ‫װאס‬ ָ
,‫װיצן‬
‫קנבארדן‬
ַ ‫בא‬ַ ‫ברודער מיט די‬-‫ּפאעזיע‬ ָ ‫מײן‬
ַ ‫דרשנט‬
?‫באלד אונטער‬ַ ‫לשון גײט‬-‫מאמע‬ ַ ‫מײן‬
ַ ‫ַאז‬

1
2 Introduction

‫דא קענטיק זיצן‬ָ ‫נאך אין הונדערט ָיאר ַארום‬ ָ ‫מיר װילן‬
.‫בײ דעם ירדן‬ ַ ‫און ֿפירן די דיסקוסיע‬
:‫נאגלט‬ ָ ‫נאגט און‬ ָ ‫װײל ַא שאלה‬ ַ
‫אױב ער װײסט גענױ װּו‬
,‫די ּתֿפילה ֿפון בערדיטשעװער‬
,‫יהואשעס ליד‬ ָ
‫קולבאקס‬
ַ ‫און‬
‫װאגלט‬ ָ
​—‫אונטערגאנג‬
ַ ‫צו דער‬
,‫טא ָזאל ער מיר ַא שטײגער‬ ָ
?‫שּפראך גײט אונטער‬ ַ ‫נװײזן װּוהין די‬ַ ‫ָא‬
?‫בײ דער ּכותל מערֿבי‬ ַ ‫אֿפשר‬
,‫ קומען‬,‫דארט קומען‬ ָ ‫ װעל איך‬,‫אױב ַאזױ‬
‫דאס מױל‬ ָ ‫עֿפענען‬
‫און װי ַא לײב‬
,‫ֿפײערדיקן צונטער‬ ַ ‫נגעטאן אין‬
ָ ‫ָא‬
.‫װאס גײט אונטער‬ ָ ‫אײנשלינגען דעם לשון‬ ַ
!‫מײן ברומען‬
ַ ‫ און ַאלע דורות װעקן מיט‬,‫אײנשלינגען‬ ַ

Shall I start from the beginning?

Shall I, a brother,
Like Abraham
Smash all the idols?
Shall I let myself be translated alive?
Shall I plant my tongue
And wait
Till it transforms
Into our forefathers’
Raisins and almonds?
What kind of joke
Preaches
My poetry brother with whiskers,
That soon, my mother tongue will set forever?
A hundred years from now, we still may sit here
On the Jordan, and carry on this argument.
For a question
Gnaws and paws at me:
If he knows exactly in what regions
Levi Yitskhok’s prayer,
 Introduction 3

Yehoash’s poem,
Kulbak’s song
Are straying to their sunset — ​
Could he please show me
Where the language will go down?
Maybe at the Western Wall?
If so, I shall come there, come,
Open my mouth,
And like a lion
Garbed in fiery scarlet,
I shall swallow the language as it sets.
And wake all the generations with my roar!
Avrom Sutzkever, “Yiddish” (1948)1

Avrom Sutzkever’s poem poses the essential questions raised in this book:
What is the role of Yiddish language and culture after the near-complete
destruction of its European centers in the Holocaust? How does a Yiddish
writer negotiate the radically new circumstances after the Holocaust and the
establishment of the Jewish state? How do the treasures of Yiddish language
and culture maintain their relevance in the original and translation?
Post-Holocaust Yiddish culture has received much less critical attention
than would be expected. The dominant discourse of Jewish culture after the
Holocaust as it evolved in its main languages — ​English, Hebrew, German,
and Russian — ​was not hospitable to Yiddish for various political, ideolog-
ical, and cultural reasons. Yiddish embodied the Ashkenazi civilization in
Eastern and Central Europe which had ceased to exist except for crumbling
old books that nobody outside the Yiddish world was able to read. Only the
presence of Yiddish writers (survivors and the old guard) and a still signifi-
cant Yiddish readership ensured the visibility of the language in the Jewish
cultural centers of the United States, Israel, and the Soviet Union. Yiddish
was viewed as a remnant of the past, tragically eradicated in its prime. Yet
during the first two and a half decades following the Holocaust, the Yiddish
cultural world was in constant, dynamic flux, maintaining a staggering level
of activity in the form of publications, cultural performances, collections of
archival and historical materials, and the launching of young literary talents.
This book will tell this generally unknown story and present a multi­
faceted picture of a transnational Yiddish culture. The book offers a portrait
of the 1945 generation of Yiddish writers, trailblazers of the last blossom-
ing of secular Yiddish culture, which consisted of many and varied cultural,
4 Introduction

political, and literary organizations. These offered a wide range of publica-

tions, daily and periodical press, and other media. The ways into this glob-
ally dispersed culture will be presented through the works of seven major
Yiddish writers who typify the trajectory of this generation’s journey from
the Old World to the New, through the crucible of the ghettos and concen-
tration camps or by witnessing the Holocaust from New York, Montreal, Tel
Aviv, Buenos Aires, and Moscow.
At the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM), one
encounters the gruesome details of the annihilation of the six million Jews in
the exhibit area, workshops, and interviews with the rapidly shrinking group
of survivors. However, with the exception of a few Yiddish poems displayed at
the end of the permanent exhibit, there are almost no visible signs of the cul-
ture and language of the majority of Jews murdered in the Holocaust. Behind
locked glass cases flanking the entrance to the USHMM library, a complete
set of Yizker books, the Yiddish and Hebrew memorial books edited and pub-
lished by the landsmanshaftn (hometown organizations) of Eastern European
Jewish towns, is displayed like sforim (holy books) in a beys medresh (house
of study).2 Characteristically, the Yizker books are exhibited as iconic arti-
facts in the museum but are relatively seldom utilized in Holocaust studies.3
The reasons for the occlusion of Yiddish culture and language in Holocaust
museums, scholarship, and education are multifaceted and complex.4 The fact
remains, however, that until recently the intersection between Yiddish and
Holocaust studies has been limited in English-­language scholarship.5 Like
most post-1945 Yiddish writing, the works of surviving Jewish historians
and literary scholars from Eastern Europe — ​such as Nakhmen Blumenthal,
Philip Friedman, Bernard Mark, Mark Dworzecki, and Joseph Kermish — ​
who began collecting and systematically analyzing Yiddish testimonies
and artistic works immediately after the war, have been largely invisible in
English.6 Recently, three books have appeared that locate Yiddish writings at
the center of the field of Holocaust studies as a paradigmatic and continuous
body of work written by Jews during and after the Holocaust.7 This book
contributes to this renewal of scholarly engagement between Holocaust and
Yiddish studies which, as Jewish historian Cecile Kuznitz points out, has a
lot to offer: “A closer relationship between Yiddish studies and Holocaust
scholarship has much to contribute to our understanding of the catastrophe,
placing it in its Jewish context and giving long-overdue attention to the most
heroic chapter of Yiddish cultural creativity.”8
David G. Roskies has argued that post-1945 Yiddish culture has con-
tinuously and systematically placed the Holocaust at its center. Particularly
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