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Sport in the Global Society
General Editor: J.A.Mangan

SOCCER, WOMEN, SEXUAL LIBERATION

 SPORT IN THE GLOBAL SOCIETY
General Editor: J.A.Mangan
The interest in sports studies around the world is growing and will continue to do
so. This unique series combines aspects of the expanding study of sport in the global
society, providing comprehensiveness and comparison under one editorial
umbrella. It is particularly timely, with studies in the cultural, economic,
ethnographic, geographical, political, social, anthropological, sociological and
aesthetic elements of sport proliferating in institutions of higher education.
Eric Hobsbawm once called sport one of the most significant practices of the
late nineteenth century. Its significance was even more marked in the late twentieth
century and will continue to grow in importance into the new millennium as the
world develops into a ‘global village’ sharing the English language, technology
and sport.
Other Titles in the Series
Football, Europe and the Press
Liz Crolley and David Hand
The Future of Football
Challenges for the Twenty-First Century
Edited by Jon Garland, Dominic Malcolm and Michael Rowe
Football Culture
Local Contests, Global Visions
Edited by Gerry P.T.Finn and Richard Giulianotti
France and the 1998 World Cup
The National Impact of a World Sporting Event
Edited by Hugh Dauncey and Geoff Hare
The First Black Footballer
Arthur Wharton 1865–1930: An Absence of Memory
Phil Vasili
Scoring for Britain
International Football and International Politics, 1900–1939
Peter J.Beck
Women, Sport and Society in Modern China
Holding Up More than Half the Sky
Dong Jinxia
Sport in Latin American Society
Past and Present
Edited by J.A.Mangan and Lamartine P.DaCosta
Sport in Asian Society
 iii

Past and Present

Edited by J.A.Mangan and Fan Hong
Sport in Australasian Society
Past and Present
Edited by J.A.Mangan and John Nauright
Sporting Nationalisms
Identity, Ethnicity, Immigration and Assimilation
Edited by Mike Cronin and David Mayall
The Commercialization of Sport
Edited by Trevor Slack
Shaping the Superman
Fascist Body as Political Icon: Aryan Fascism
Edited by J.A.Mangan
Superman Supreme
Fascist Body as Political Icon: Global Fascism
Edited by J.A.Mangan
Making the Rugby World
Race, Gender, Commerce
Edited by Timothy J.L Chandler and John Nauright
Rugby’s Great Split
Class, Culture and the Origins of Rugby League Football
Tony Collins
The Race Game
Sport and Politics in South Africa
Douglas Booth
Cricket and England
A Cultural and Social History of the Inter-war Years
Jack Williams
The Games Ethic and Imperialism
Aspects of the Diffusion of an Ideal
J.A.Mangan
 SOCCER, WOMEN,
SEXUAL LIBERATION
Kicking Off a New Era
Editors

FAN HONG
J.A.MANGAN
De Montfort University (Bedford)

FRANK CASS
LONDON • PORTLAND, OR
 First published in 2004 in Great Britain by
FRANK CASS PUBLISHERS
Crown House, 47 Chase Side, Southgate,
London, N14 5BP
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection
of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
and in the United States of America by
FRANK CASS PUBLISHERS
c/o ISBS, 920 NE 58th Avenue, Suite 300
Portland, Oregon 97213–3786
Website: www.frankcass.com
Copyright collection © 2004 Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
Copyright chapters © 2004 contributors
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record of their book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0-203-01116-3 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-7146-5509-0 (cloth)

ISBN 0-7146-8408-2 (paper)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record of this book is available from the Library of Congress
This group of studies first appeared as a special issue of Soccer and Society
(ISSN 1466–0970), Vol.4, Nos.2/3, Summer/Autumn 2003, published by Frank Cass
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher of this book.
 Contents

List of Illustrations viii

List of Tables ix
Series Editor’s Foreword x

Prologue 1
Introduction—‘M’s’ in Football: Myths, Management, Marketing, 7
Media and Money. A Reprise
Donna de Varona
1 Women’s Soccer in the United States: Yet Another American 14
‘Exceptionalism’
Andrei S.Markovits and Steven L.Hellerman
2 The Game of Choice: Girls’ and Women’s Soccer in Canada 31
M.Ann Hall
3 Will the ‘Iron Roses’ Bloom Forever? Women’s Football in China: 49
hanges and Challenges
Fan Hong and J.A.Mangan
4 Chains, Challenges and Changes: The Making of Women’s Football 71
in Korea
Eunha Koh
5 Forwards and Backwards: Women’s Soccer in Twentieth-Century 85
India
Boria Majumdar
6 Asserting the Right to Play—Women’s Football in Denmark 101
Anne Brus and Else Trangbæk
7 The Fastest Growing Sport? Women’s Football in England 291
Jean Williams
8 The Challenges of Women’s Football in East and West Germany: A 135
Comparative Study
Gertrud Pfister
 vii

9 Small Country—Big Results: Women’s Football in Norway 157

Kari Fasting
10 Women’s Football in the Republic of Ireland: Past Events and 170
Future Prospects
Ann Bourke
11 A Breakthrough: Women’s Football in Sweden 190
Johny Hjelm and Eva Olofsson
12 From Heydays to Struggles: Women’s Soccer in New Zealand 213
Barbara Cox and Shona Thompson
13 Football Feminine—Development of the African Game: Senegal, 234
Nigeria and South Africa
Martha Saavedra
14 Women’s Football in Brazil: Progress and Problems 264
Sebastião Votre and Ludmila Mourão

Epilogue 279
Select Bibliography 283
Notes on the Contributors 287
Abstracts 289
Index 295
 List of Illustrations

2.1 Young fans at the 2002 FIFA Under-19 Women’s World Cup in 35
Edmonton, Canada
2.2 Sonia Denoncourt 35
2.3 Charmaine Hooper, Silvana Burtini and Sonia Denoncourt 36
6.1 The BK Femina soccer team, 1959 108
6.2 BK Femina, 1964 108
6.3 BK Femina, 1968 109
6.4 BK Femina, 1970 109
8.1 Poster advertising France v. England match, 1920 137
8.2 Women’s soccer in West Berlin, early 1970s 143
8.3 Women’s soccer in West Berlin, early 1970s 143
8.4 Women’s soccer cartoons from East Germany 143
8.5 Women’s indoor soccer, East Germany c.1980 143
8.6 Frauenfußball Frankfurt 1930 143
8.7 West Germany v. Switzerland, 1982 143
8.8 (West) German National Team, 1989, winners of the European 143
Championship
9.1 Female membership of the Norwegian Football Association, 1985–2000 160
9.2 Female membership of the Norwegian Football Association, 1985–99: 161
girls under 17 and women over 17
9.3 Active members of the Norwegian Football Association in relation to 161
gender and age, 2001
10.1 Financial grants to the LFAI 176
10.2 Women’s football figuration 184
10.3 The Republic of Ireland Under-19 team 185
12.1 Eden Saints Team, Auckland, 1974 219
12.2 Three Kings United Team, Auckland, 1998 219
12.3 Elaine Lee 219
 List of Tables

7.1 Number of women’s soccer clubs in England, 1969–96 130

9.1 Achievements of the female Norwegian national football team 157
9.2 Female representation in the Norwegian Football Association, 1985–88 163
10.1 What does the Ladies Football Association of Ireland do for you? 173
10.2 Leagues affiliated to the WFAI 174
11.1 Football players’ licences for women and men in Sweden, 1970–80 199
 Series Editor’s Foreword

The American Sue Sally Hale disguised herself as a man and played professional
polo from 1950 to 1965 at a time when women were banned from playing the
game professionally. Her ruse was comic—and effective: she tucked her hair into
her helmet, flattened her breasts with tape, wore a baggy shirt and sported a false
moustache. She was never found out! To add insult to injury, after games she
‘became a woman again’ and partied with the players as an impressed female
admirer.1 Her dexterity reinforced her deception on the polo ground: ‘She could
ride a horse like a Comanche and hit a ball like a Mack truck’, a sports commentator
later observed when she eventually became the first woman to be allowed to join
the US Polo Association.2
If many women soccer players of 2003 do not ‘have everything’ as, allegedly in
the view of some, befits the modern woman, many now have a great deal more in
many countries than she had in the USA in 1950. Sue Sally Hale lived up to
Jacobean playwright Ben Jonson’s assertion that ‘If women have a will they do it
against all the watches of the world.’3 She is a sportswoman for all sportswomen.
It is hoped that Soccer, Women, Sexual Liberation will help their cause at least on
soccer pitches. It reveals that many women soccer players of the world have some
way to go to ‘have something’, never mind ‘have everything’. If ‘the future is
feminine’, as Sepp Blatter has boldly proclaimed, then FIFA’s priority should be
to ensure that women everywhere have the fullest opportunity to play soccer—
recreationally and occupationally. That is a task well worth undertaking.
A note of caution—Nawal El Moutawakel, the first African, Muslim and Arab
woman to win an Olympic gold medal, after watching a Moroccan girls’ soccer
game on wretched cactus-strewn scrub on the edge of a Berber village in the
Atlas mountains, remarked: ‘I knew how easy it was for me because of the
support of my [middle-class] family. But I know there are millions of little Nawals
out there who do not have the courage or the necessary support to go out and jog
and feel the beauty of sport.’4
She makes the strongest of points, revealed so tellingly in an earlier Sport in the
Global Society collection, Freeing the Female Body: Inspirational Icons,5 namely, the
advantages middle-class women have in the world of modern sport. Writers on
women and sport should never ‘be blinded by illusions of sisterly solidarity and so
neglect destructive class differences associated with modern sport’.6
 xi

FIFA could do no finer thing than to set as its top priority women’s classless
access to soccer all over the world.
J.A.MANGAN
Director
International Centre for Socialization, Sport, Society
De Montfort University (Bedford) July 2003

NOTES

1. See her obituary in The Daily Telegraph, 3 May 2003, 29.

2. Ibid.
3. Ben Jonson, Volpone (Corvino), Act II, Sc.III quoted in Colonel Phillip Hugn
Dalbiac, A Dictionary of Quotations (London: Nelson, n.d.), p. 123.
4. See Tom Knight, ‘Foundations Laid for A Better Future’, The Daily Telegraph
(sports section), 20 May 2002, S7.
5. J.A.Mangan and Fan Hong (eds.), Freeing the Female Body: Inspirational icons
(London: Frank Cass, 2001), passim.
6. See Katherine McCrone, ‘Class, Gender and English Women’s Sport, c1890–1914’,
Journal of Sports History, Vol.18, No.l (Spring, 1991), 161.
 PROLOGUE
Managing Monsters
J.A.MANGAN

Women’s advance in modern sport has been too frequently characterized by

condescension and confrontation, denial and defiance, proscription and
persistence, and too often, by necessary forced entry and grudging
accommodation. This is strikingly apparent from the evidence set out in Soccer,
Women, Sexual Liberation by women (and men) who have closely examined
Africa, America (North and South), Asia and Europe.
There is more than a grain of truth in the assertion that behind the lengthy
history of women’s slow advance onto global football fields lies attempts at what
has been termed ‘Managing Monsters’. Any attempted metamorphosis from
allocated feminine role to asserted feminine role has provoked ridicule, anger and
anxiety—and not just from men!
Women’s historical social role has recently been well described:

The familiar categories of wife, mother and virgin represent traditional roles
for women in patriarchal societies. Within their typically subjugated roles,
women found ways to project power and to be exemplars of socially
sanctioned ideals of womanhood. By contrast, sexually assertive women,
who rejected traditional constraints imposed on women, were viewed as
dangerous to society.1

This lucid observation, written about women in sixteenth- and seventeenth-

century Europe, has more recent world applications.
Marina Warner, in her 1994 Reith Lectures ‘Managing Monsters: Six Myths of
Our Time’, considered the threat of the ‘serpentine metamorphosis of the
monstrous female’2 and, allegorically, directed her listeners to some overlooked
scientific data about the infamous insect—the female praying mantis:

Eckehard Liske and W.Jackson Davis of Santa Cruz California… videotaped

the mantises’ courtship while the insects thought they were in private and
found a pleasant ritual dance in place of cannibalism—and with both
partners surviving. The researchers say that until now scientists have
distracted the insects by their presence and by watching them under bright
lights—and that they didn’t give them enough to eat.3
2 SOCCER, WOMEN, SEXUAL LIBERATION

Warner remarked, ‘This most loved creature in the surrealist bestiary

of misogynist folklore famous for devouring her mate alive after mating, has been
vindicated. Let them alone, give them enough to eat and look! They fall into
peaceful mutual post-coital slumber.’4
The pleasing outcome of mutually satisfying intercourse apart, Warner’s related
point, on a human level, is well made: ‘Sovereignty over self—not over others; the
right to govern one’s own person, not the right to govern others…emancipation
through understanding’,5 and she adds for good measure, ‘monsters are made, not
given and if monsters are made not given, they can be unmade too’.6
The struggles of women footballers across the world has involved the persistent
‘unmaking’ of laughable pseudo-logic, crude stereotype and malicious myth.
Illustrations abound in Soccer, Women, Sexual Liberation.
Optimism regarding the future is justified. Nevertheless caution is needed in
this optimism. One message to be found in Soccer, Women, Sexual Liberation is that
in a world economy undergoing revolutionary change in many areas, ‘regardless of
the country examined and regardless of whether per capita income has increased,
stagnated or decreased, women have been over-represented among the losers or
under-represented among the winners…economic transformation has led to
fewer gains or greater losses for women. The outcome of economic
transformation, therefore, does not appear to be random.’7 In the countries
considered in Soccer, Women, Sexual Liberation, this analysis holds true. In China—
originally host to the 2003 Women’s Football World Cup—economic
transformation and associated rapid economic growth, post Mao, have had ‘two
contradictory consequences for the position of women…’.8 On the one hand,
increased employment opportunities have strengthened the bargaining power of
women; on the other hand, gender discrimination in hiring and firing has reduced
the status of women…’.9 As Soccer, Women, Sexual Liberation reveals, this also holds
true for Chinese women in football—inside and outside the immediate family. Any
solution to pernicious and persistent inequality in society, and in football, will
depend on economic growth, government policies and the effectiveness of
women’s organizations. As in the past so in the future, to a significant extent: ‘Only
if women organize to voice their needs through labour unions, political office and
women’s organizations will they be able to become equal players in the
transformed world economy of the future’10 and in the transformed world of
global football: economic progress, gender influence and ‘a level (football) playing
field’ all go together! Progress will ensue but it will not be easy; gender certainties
and uncertainties, commercial conservatism, governmental priorities could all bar
the way. Certainly, ‘in a dynamic capitalist world the rules keep changing’11—but,
as yet, neither sufficiently fast nor sufficiently advantageous to adequately benefit
women. One reason is clear enough. ‘As long as the governing ideology of the
sports business is determined by the demands of commercialization, athletic
activity at all levels will continue to be more reactionary than progressive, even as
women make gains’12 (emphasis added). To commercialization, as already made
clear, should be added gender resistance and political inertia.
 PROLOGUE 3

There is, of course, as already stated, some room for optimism. An earlier
collection in Sport in the Global Society revealed how some courageous women
in recent times, ‘through a re-evaluation, reconstruction and rehabilitation of
their “bodies” and women’s bodies in general, have influenced and determined,
directly and indirectly and to a lesser or greater extent, the status of many modern
women of the modern “global village”’.13
Within the narrower framework of women’s football, Soccer, Women, Sexual
Liberation has added other women to this iconic pantheon—and in many cases,
their contributions are far from complete.
One crucial issue, incidentally, to be confronted in the future with regard to
women’s football, to a greater extent beyond Europe and North America than
within them, is the role government—national and local—will need to play in the
twenty-first century: Both state and public sector organizations have an obligation
to ensure essential social services including educational and leisure opportunities
for involvement in sport. This obligation should be both proactive and reactive.
In the latter case because ‘its policies, programmes and services compensate for the
shortcomings of the private sector. In the former case because it has a civic
responsibility to improve health, well-being and the quality of life of those it
caters for—in partnership with commercial concerns or independently in its own
right.’14 Soccer, Women, Sexual Liberation reveals disquieting tendencies in both
Northern and Southern hemispheres to abrogate these responsibilities—in total
and in part. It is equally clear that action to halt this tendency will only be
adequately made when women obtain a voice—individually and collectively—on
state and public sector decision—and have a presence at local and national
levels.15 This must be a priority for the future.
Finally, the rest of the world, as in so many other things, will follow America
in the creation of an increasingly symbiotic relationship between culture, sport
and commerce. Women must be to the fore in this process. And American
women lead the way—the USA Women’s Football World Cup is evidence of
this.16
The so-called ‘consciousness industries’, it has been noted, now add to the value
—economic and cultural—of finished commercial products. Nike Air Jordan
shoes furnish a perfect illustration. Their exorbitant price owes much to
innovative advertising campaigns that have ‘both capitalised on, and indeed,
accentuated Michael Jordan’s cultural prominence’.17 With the result that, ‘Air
Jordan Shoes…furnished with a symbolic value…effectively transformed a gaudy
concoction of leather, nylon and rubber into a prized cultural commodity’.18
The importance of this phenomenon to women’s football is obvious and is
made abundantly clear in Soccer, Women, Sexual Liberation. Absorption into the
‘consciousness industries’ should be an ambition of modern sportswomen, their
agents, promoters and sponsors. This will result in increasing wealth, power and
influence. For women it could occur more slowly than in the case of men, but it
will occur. At the centre of the now intrinsically linked culture, commerce
and sport is the media—and in particular, commercial network television—the
4 SOCCER, WOMEN, SEXUAL LIBERATION

entertainment industry’s driving force in the early twenty-first century.19 It should

not be overlooked that:

Since revenue from the sale of advertising space represents network

television’s principal revenue stream (augmented by sponsorship income
and syndication fees), the size and composition of programme audiences
assumes critical importance; audiences effectively become commodities sold
by media outlets to advertisers. Under this economic system, the boundaries
between advertiser and programmer interests have been virtually erased.
With scant regard for television’s educative and informative potential,
commercial television networks routinely originate repetitious and bland
menus of entertainment-oriented programming (game shows, situation
comedies, docudramas and infotainment), designed solely to secure mass
audiences.20

The good news for women footballers is that:

Sport is on the menu too, offering a number of unique qualities: It is

relatively inexpensive and easy to produce (certainly compared with
equivalent programming lasting upwards of two hours); it is practically the
only live television genre involving uncertain outcomes; it has a historically
and culturally entrenched popular appeal… So, in purely pecuniary terms
(and that is primarily what they are motivated by) live sport coverage is an
attractive proposition for the major networks.21

Even better news is that so-called late capitalism’s ‘broadening exploitative reach
has brought female, ethnic and grey markets into the televised sport universe’.22
The twenty-first century will most certainly be an era of a ‘seductively
consumerist union of commerce, sport and television of benefit to sports
women’.23
However this could have drawbacks. The Olympics, it has been argued, offer a
commercial scenario at once pleasing and unpleasing. The Atlantic Olympics saw
an NBC strategy to attract women viewers by shaping the Games into a
distinctively ‘feminine’ televisual spectacle. The strategy was both a ratings and a
financial success. This gendered Olympic strategy in the crucial 18–34 female
demographic segment, saw improved NBC ratings of 16 per cent on Barcelona
and 69 per cent on Seoul!24 So far, so good. However, could it be that, as it has
been suggested, ‘the political potential of an increased female presence in the
Olympic spectacle was neutralised by the demeaning way in which NBC chose to
represent and engage women’,25 namely, the orchestration of viewers’ emotional
investment by constructing simulated narratives seemingly freshly evolving before
their eyes’?26
Perhaps television’s capacity for massaging, reconstructing and repackaging
sport for maximum audience appeal is the price women’s football will have to
 PROLOGUE 5

pay, and will be willing to pay to advance the sport’s security. The plain fact is
that the media generate the fund that stabilizes, ensures and expands a sport’s
future—if sports administrators negotiate cleverly enough.
If football world cups are to be a media celebration of soccer womanhood in
the way that the Olympics has become a media celebration of Olympic
womanhood, with its emphasis on appropriate sexuality, then there are clear
implications for appearance, behaviour and performance in the media’s projection
of an ‘appealing’ stereotypic feminine spectacle.
Is the NBC Atlanta Olympic coverage a harbinger of things to come in
women’s football, bringing a ‘tear to the eye and bullion to the coffers’?27 In such
a situation what hope has a marketing strategy beyond the media directed at the
wider community—a feature of the American Football World Cup?28 Clearly the
future has prospects and perils: there is nothing new in this. What needs to be
new is the greater presence of women footballers in places where decisions are
made about their game. Prospects may then see at least some of the perils off!

NOTES

1. Annette Dixon (ed.), Women Who Ruled: Queens Goddesses, Amazons in Renaissance
and Baroque Art (Michigan: Merrill in association with The University of Michigan
Museum of Art, 2002), p. 119.
2. Marina Warner, Managing Monsters: Six Myths of Our Time (London: Vintage, 1995),
p. 16.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid., p. 31.
7. See the Introduction by the editors, ‘Women and Economic Transformation’, in
Nhid Aslanbeiqui, Steven Pressman and Gale Summerfield (eds), Women in the Age
of Economic Transformation (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 1–2. For a detailed
discussion of the general global position of women in an era of tumultuous
economic change, see the whole of the Introduction.
8. Ibid., p. 4.
9. Ibid., p. 6. For a further discussion of contemporary Chinese women’s economic
position, see Gale Summerfield, ‘Chinese Women and the Post-Mao Economic
Reforms’, in Aslanbeiqui, Pressman and Summerfield (eds.), Women in the Age of
Economic Transformation, pp. 113–28.
10. Ibid.
11. Linda J.Borish and Barbara L.Tischler (Guest Editors), Editorial, Rethinking History,
5, 1 (Spring 2001), 6.
12. Ibid.
13. See J.A.Mangan, ‘Epilogue: Prospects for the New Millennium: Women,
Emancipation and the Body’, in J.A.Mangan and Fan Hong (eds), Freeing the Female
Body: Inspirational Icons (London: Frank Cass, 2001), p. 237.
6 SOCCER, WOMEN, SEXUAL LIBERATION

14. For a valuable consideration of this issue, see Lucie Thibault, Lisa M.Kikuhs and
Wendy Frisby, ‘Partnership between local Government Sport and Leisure
Departments and the Commercial Sector: Changes, Complexities and
Consequences’, in Trevor Slack (ed.), The Commercialization of Sport (London: Frank
Cass, 2003), pp. 19–38.
15. Ibid.
16. See Donna de Varona, ‘M’s’ in Football: Myths, Management, Marketing, Media
and Money: A Reprise’, Introduction, Soccer, Women, Sexual Liberation: Kicking Off a
New Era (London: Frank Cass, 2003).
17. David L.Andrews, ‘Sport in the Late Capitalist Moment’, in Slack (ed.), The
Commercialization of Sport, p. 6.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid., p. 31.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid., p. 10.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid., p. 22.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid., p. 17.
27. Ibid., p. 19.
28. See Varona, ‘M’s’ in Football’.
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