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God’s Empire
Religion and Colonialism in the
British World, c. 1801–1908

Hilary M. Carey
CA MBR IDGE U NI V ERSIT Y PR ESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo, Mexico City

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,

New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521194105

© Hilary M. Carey 2011

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2011

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Carey, Hilary M. (Hilary Mary), 1957–
God’s Empire : Religion and Colonialism in the British World,
c. 1801–1908 / Hilary M. Carey.
p. cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-521-19410-5
1. Great Britain – Church history – 19th century. I. Title.
BR759.C365 2010
270.09171′24109034–dc22
2010045718

ISBN 978-0-521-19410-5 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in
this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
In loving memory of
Guy Alexander Beange 1923–2004
 Contents

List of figures page ix

List of maps x
List of tables xi
Preface and acknowledgments xiii
List of abbreviations xvii

Part I God’s empire 1

1 Colonialism, colonisation and Greater Britain 3
2 Protestant nation to Christian empire, 1801–1908 40

Part II Colonial missionary societies 73

Introduction: colonial mission 75
3 Anglicans 84
4 Catholics 114
5 Evangelical Anglicans 148
6 Nonconformists 177
7 Presbyterians 206

Part III Colonial clergy 245

8 Clergy 247
9 St Augustine’s College, Canterbury 271
10 Missionary College of All Hallows,
Drumcondra (Dublin) 287

Part IV Promised lands 305

Introduction: emigrants and colonists 307
11 Christian colonisation and its critics 311

vii
viii Contents

12 Colonies 341
Conclusion 371

Bibliography 381
Index 410
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 Figure

1.1 Population of British origin in Australia, Canada,

New Zealand and South Africa compared with Ireland
and Scotland. page 20

ix
 Maps

1.1 British empire, 1815 page xix

1.2 British empire, 1914 xx
1.3 British North America, 1867 xxi
1.4 Australia and New Zealand, 1900 xxii
1.5 South Africa, showing British possessions, July 1885 xxiii
12.1 Diocese of Christchurch, New Zealand, in the late
nineteenth century 354

x
 Tables

1.1 Populations of England, Scotland, Ireland and major settler

colonies, 1801–1911 page 19
1.2 Canada: principal religious denominations of the
population, 1871–1901 32
1.3 Australia: principal religious denominations of the
population, 1891, 1901 33
1.4 Cape Colony: church membership and ethnicity, 1898 34
1.5 New Zealand: principal religious denominations of the
population, 1891–1911 35
1.6 Australia and New Zealand: proportions of religious
denominations in Australia and New Zealand according
to census years 1871, 1881, 1891, 1901 36
3.1 Colonial missionary societies and auxiliaries 78
3.2 SPG: summary of the missionary roll, 1701–1900 86
3.3 Anglican colonial and missionary bishoprics, 1900 110
3.4 SPG: income from general and other sources, 1801–1910 112
4.1 British and world receipts (French francs) to the Society
for the Propagation of the Faith, 1840, 1854–1860 131
4.2 Chronology of Catholic dioceses in Britain and settler
colonies up to 1908 145
5.1 Income of the Newfoundland School Society (NSS), Colonial
Church Society (CCS), Colonial Church and School Society
(CCSS), and Colonial and Continental Church Society
(CCCS), 1831–1909 173
7.1 Summary of Congregational collections, Presbyterian
Church of Ireland, 1890–2 229
7.2 Receipts on the Schemes of the Free Church of Scotland,
1842–5 234
7.3 Receipts for the Colonial Scheme of the Church of
Scotland, 1868–85 238
8.1 Number of clergy, ministers and priests in England and
Wales for census years 1841, 1881 and 1911 250
xi
xii List of tables

8.2 Relative percentage distribution of the clerical, legal,

medical and teaching professions in the British empire,
including subordinate occupations, 1901 251
8.3 Anglican missionary colleges and training institutions
supported by the SPG and number of students ordained,
1754–1900 267
9.1 St Augustine’s College, Canterbury. summary table of
graduate destinations 281
9.2 St Augustine’s College, Canterbury. dioceses of sailing,
1849–1904 285
10.1 Irish missionary seminaries 290
10.2 All Hallows College, summary of destinations of
matriculants, 1842–91 291
10.3 Carlow College, destinations of alumni 293
10.4 All Hallows College, destination dioceses of matriculants,
1842–1900 300
12.1 Race and religion in the Province of Canterbury,
New Zealand, 1857 358
 Preface and acknowledgments

While I was conducting research for this book, it was reported that
students at one of the Cambridge colleges had been obliged to abandon
the chosen theme for their May Ball, which was ‘Empire’. Protestors
who set up a Facebook site objected that the British empire continued
to be a ‘highly sensitive subject’ for many people and that it was inap-
propriate to use it as the theme for a light-hearted event.
As heirs to the legacy of the British empire, British prime ministers
have been divided on the need to give an account of their moral stew-
ardship. In 2007, Tony Blair apologised on the 200th anniversary of
the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade; others said the time for apolo-
gies was past.1 In the former colonies, there is also a mixed picture.
While former Prime Minister John Howard refused to make any apol-
ogy to the Australian Aborigines on the ground that his administration
had played no role in their original colonisation and dispossession, his
successor made an official apology to the ‘stolen generations’ one of
his first acts on coming to power. Along with church leaders of many
denominations, Pope Benedict XVI would appear to side with the apol-
ogisers, and, in May 2007, reflecting on his visit to Brazil, he lamented
the injustice that had often accompanied Christian missions.
So why does the mere idea of empire now attract division when, a
little over a hundred years ago, imperial church gatherings, such as the
Pan-Anglican Congress of 1908 (discussed in the final chapter) capti-
vated the London metropole?
This book sets out to answer this question from a particular point of
view – that of the colonial missionary movement. It examines a set of
ideas that rose and fell with the mass flow of people from Great Britain
and Ireland to colonies in British North America, Australia, New
Zealand and southern Africa in the nineteenth century. It concerns the
institutions which were created by the churches to support the dias-
pora, including the colonial committees, colonial missionary societies,

1
P. Brendon, ‘A Moral Audit of the British Empire’, History Today, 57 (2007), p. 44.
xiii
xiv Preface and acknowledgments

missionary colleges, missionary periodicals, and memoirs published by

colonial clergy in their retirement. It was a large movement, even if it
was not so large as either the foreign missionary movement, or those
moral and humanitarian campaigns, including anti-slavery, temper-
ance and labour reform, which also engaged the British churches at
about the same time. Colonial missions were conservative: they helped
to sustain bonds of allegiance and unite them in what they perceived to
be a great spiritual and moral enterprise. However, they also helped to
perpetuate the old animosities between Protestant and Catholic, estab-
lished and Free Church, liberal and conservative, that had character-
ised churches in Britain.
Colonial churches therefore laboured under a double burden. They
were central signifiers of older religious nationalisms, sectarianism and
ethnicities, even as these things were breaking down under the multiple
impacts of constitutional reform, emigration, colonisation and nation-
building. At the same time, they were required to nurture the more tol-
erant, liberal and democratic values, which included the absence of an
established Church and hereditary privilege, which would eventually
be seen as hallmarks of the new Britains of the second British empire.
Indeed, if they were to survive and meet the needs of new nations,
rather than their home congregations in England, Scotland, Ireland
and Wales, colonial missions had to sow the seeds of national churches
in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa and other former
settler colonies.
Each church met this challenge within different spiritual and rhet-
orical strategies: some by strengthening the union of the British or
Anglo-Saxon race, others by celebrating their escape from it, some by
denouncing the colonial enterprise, others by colluding with it. Assisted
by generous public and private funding, the solutions they devised
gave the religious character to what some liked to call ‘Greater Britain’
and which these days we tend to call the ‘British world’. By the end
of the nineteenth century, with the critical exception of South Africa,
the dominions that made up the British world formed the loyal, white,
Christian counterpart to the former colonies of settlement that had
once rejected the bond with Britain – the United States. The churches
were essential to the creation of a Christian consensus which supported
the expansion of the British world through the planting of religious
institutions in every conceivable corner of the empire.
The structure of this book generally follows a chronological trajec-
tory though there are many thematic meanderings along the way. The
first section begins by defining some terms and providing a survey of
the major events which impacted on the religious affairs of the colonies
 Preface and acknowledgments xv

in the nineteenth century. The second section, on colonial missions,

is divided between Anglicans, Catholics, Evangelical Anglicans,
Nonconformists and Presbyterians, and gives an account of all the major
colonial missionary societies: the (Anglican) Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel (SPG), the (Catholic) Association for the Propagation of
the Faith (APF), the (Evangelical Anglican) Colonial and Continental
Missionary Society (CCMS), the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary
Society (WMMS), the (Congregationalist) Colonial Church Society
(CCS) and the Colonial Schemes of the Free and established Church
of Scotland. Since, apart from the SPG, most of these societies have
not had the benefit of their own individual scholarly histories, this has
required quite a lot of narrative compression of the printed and archival
sources. It also led to some chronological overlap, but it did seem to
make the best sense to follow this arrangement so I stuck with it. The
third section concerns the colonial clergy – or at least their training in
the two colleges that were specifically set up for this purpose in Ireland
and England. There were others in the colonies, as well as the Irish
College in Rome, which performed similar work; however, I have had
less to say about them. The final section takes the colonial missionary
movement to the promised lands of colonial settlement and looks at
religious schemes of colonisation, especially those to New Zealand, and
the controversy aroused by Edward Gibbon Wakefield and his theory of
systematic colonisation. It concludes with the Britannia or Barr colony,
which was established in Saskatchewan during the last great imperial
land boom in the Canadian wheat lands of the northwest.
I would like to acknowledge a number of intellectual and institu-
tional debts that I have incurred while writing this book. The original
idea for God’s Empire germinated while I was writing a chapter for
Australia’s Empire, the companion volume to the Oxford History of the
British Empire, edited by Deryck Schreuder and Stuart Ward. At this
time, I was in Dublin where I was serving a term as Keith Cameron
Professor of Australian History at University College Dublin. Some of
the ideas which find their way expanded into this volume began with
discussions at the conference I organised with Hugh McLeod in Dublin
in 2006.2 It is also a book written from the perspective of Newcastle,
the second city of New South Wales, where I have worked since 1991.
In a multicultural and post-colonial nation like Australia, Newcastle’s
Victorian city centre and the cultural resilience of its former settler
churches has become something of a rarity. While successive waves of

2
H. M. Carey, ed., Empires of Religion, Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies
Series (Basingstoke, 2008).
xvi Preface and acknowledgments

new arrivals from around the globe have changed other imperial cities
beyond recognition, the overall religious mix in Newcastle continues to
preserve something of the character of its founding British churches.
I have found it a good place to reflect on the complexities of the post-
colonial world, in which cities, nations, churches and their people have
been energetic in reinventing themselves and turning their backs on the
imperial past.
Research for this book was funded from 2005 to 2007 by a Discovery
Project grant from the Australian Research Council and aided by
research leave from the University of Newcastle. Dr Troy Duncan pro-
vided exemplary research assistance while busy with his own biography
of the seventh Anglican bishop of Newcastle, Francis de Witt Batty. I
am grateful to Clare Hall Cambridge and the York Centre for Medieval
Studies for accommodating me at various stages during the writing
of this book, and to librarians and archivists in the British Library,
Cambridge University Library, the Royal Commonwealth Library, the
Dublin Diocesan Archives, the National Library of Ireland, the National
Library of Scotland, the National Archives of Scotland, Lambeth Palace
Library, the London Guildhall Library, Rhodes House Library Oxford,
the Borthwick Institute York, Auckland City Library, Canterbury City
Library New Zealand, the State Library of New South Wales and the
Tasmanian State Archives, for their assistance. While I claim respon-
sibility for all blemishes that remain, I feel especially indebted to Colin
Barr and David Hilliard for sharing their knowledge of imperial reli-
gious history with me and rescuing me from innumerable blunders of
fact and interpretation. For reading drafts, answering queries and pro-
viding me with many insights that had escaped my attention, I also
thank Bernard Carey, John Gascoigne, Edward James, Stuart Piggin
and Deryck Schreuder.
My final debt, one I cannot repay, is to my father, Guy Alexander
Beange, who passed away just when I was getting started on this book.
Although he never showed the slightest interest in his family history, I
like to think he would have enjoyed reading about the background to
the decision by his ancestor, Alexander Beange, who chose to leave the
family farm in Aberdeen in 1860 and try his luck in the province pio-
neered by Free Church settlers in the south island of New Zealand.

Hilary M. Carey
University of Newcastle, NSW
 Abbreviations

Annals Annals of the Propagation of the Faith

APF Association for the Propagation of the Faith (Oeuvre de
la propagation de la foi)
CCCS Colonial and Continental Church Society
CCS Colonial Church Society
CMS Church Missionary Society
COS CC Church of Scotland Colonial Committee
DDA Dublin Diocesan Archives
FCOS CC Free Church of Scotland Colonial Committee
LMS London Missionary Society
NGK Dutch Reformed Church
NSS Newfoundland School Society
SPCK Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge
SPG Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
SSPCK Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian
Knowledge
WMMS Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society

xvii
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