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FINE PARTICLE
(2.5 MICRONS) EMISSIONS
Regulation, Measurement, and Control

John D. McKenna

James H. Turner

James P. McKenna

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright © 2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or
otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright
Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through
payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222
Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at
www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the
Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201)
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and authors have used their best
efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the
accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created
or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies
contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional
where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any
other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or
other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please
contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the
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print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products,
visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN: 978-0-471-70963-3

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Overview of Particulate Matter (PM) Control / 1
1.2 PM / 2
1.3 PM10 / 4
1.4 PM2.5 / 10
1.4.1 PM2.5 Monitoring Goals / 10
1.4.2 PM2.5 Program Objectives / 10
1.4.3 PM2.5 Data Uses / 10
1.4.4 Trends in PM2.5 / 11
1.4.5 Nanoparticles / 19
1.5 The Scientific Basis for Ambient Air Quality Standards / 19
1.6 Primary Standards vs. Secondary Standards / 20
1.7 PM Effects of Concern / 20
1.7.1 Secondary Effects / 21
1.8 Who Is Most at Risk? / 21
1.9 Current Legislation / 22
1.9.1 Federal Legislation / 22
1.9.1.1 Form of the Standard / 22
1.9.1.2 Standard Level / 22
1.9.1.3 Averaging Times / 23
1.9.2 State Legislation / 23
1.9.2.1 Enforcement Responsibilities / 23
1.9.2.2 Enforcement Flexibility / 24
v
vi

1.9.2.3 Staffing and Other Practical Concerns / 24

1.9.2.4 National Variations in Enforcement / 24
1.9.2.5 Permitting—A Tool Used to Achieve
Early Enforcement / 24
1.10 References / 25

2 HEALTH EFFECTS 26
2.1 Results of Recent Studies / 29
2.1.1 PM2.5 vs. PM10-2.5, PM10, and Coarser
Particles / 30
2.1.2 Air Pollution Species and Health Effects / 33
2.2 EPA Position on Certain Health Effects / 33
2.2.1 Premature Deaths / 34
2.2.2 Respiratory Illness in Children / 34
2.2.3 Cardiovascular Illness / 37
2.3 References / 38

3 AIR MONITORING 41

3.1 AMBIENT AIR MONITORING METHODS 43

3.1.1 Introduction and Scope / 43
3.1.2 Terminology / 44
3.1.3 Summary of Test Method / 48
3.1.4 Apparatus / 49
3.1.5 Procedures / 55
3.1.6 PM2.5 Test Procedures / 55
3.1.7 PM2.5 Measurement Range / 58
3.1.8 Calculations / 58
3.1.9 Calibration and Maintenance / 59
3.1.10 Precision and Bias / 59
3.1.11 Endnotes / 60
3.1.12 References / 60

3.2 EMISSION MEASUREMENT METHODS 62

3.2.1 List of EPA PM Mass Measurement Test Methods / 63
3.2.2 EPA Stationary (Point) Source PM Mass Measurement Test
Methods / 64
3.2.2.1 EPA Test Method 5 for Total PM Mass / 64
3.2.2.2 EPA Test Method 5 Variations: 5A–5H / 68
 vii

3.2.3 EPA Test Methods for PM10 from Stationary Sources / 72

3.2.3.1 Method 201: Determination of PM10 Emissions—
Exhaust Gas Recycle Procedure / 72
3.2.3.2 Methods 201A: Determination of PM10 Emissions—
Constant Sampling Rate Procedure / 75
3.2.4 EPA Test Method 17: Determination of PM Emissions from
Stationary Sources—In-Stack Filtration Method / 75
3.2.5 Method 202 for Condensable PM (CPM) Measurement / 78
3.2.6 CPM Issues / 79
3.2.7 Summary of CTM 39 / 80
3.2.8 Summary of CTM 40 / 84
3.2.9 Endnotes / 86
3.2.10 References / 87

4 EMISSION CONTROL METHODS 91

4.1 FABRIC FILTER/BAGHOUSES 93

4.1.1 Fabric Filters—Introduction and Theory / 93
4.1.1.1 Particle Collection and Penetration
Mechanisms / 95
4.1.1.2 Pressure Drop / 97
4.1.1.3 Experimental Measurements of K2—Specific Cake
Coefficient / 98
4.1.1.4 Pressure Drop in Multicompartment
Baghouses / 100
4.1.1.5 Gas-to-Cloth (G/C) Ratio / 101
4.1.2 Types of Fabric Filters / 101
4.1.2.1 Cleaning Techniques / 101
4.1.2.2 Filtration Fabrics and Fiber Types / 102
4.1.2.2.1 Filtration Fabrics / 104
4.1.2.2.2 Important Fiber Characteristics / 104
4.1.2.2.3 Fabric Types / 105
4.1.2.2.3.1 Woven Fabric / 105
4.1.2.2.3.2 Nonwoven Fabrics / 106
4.1.2.3 Shaker-Cleaned Fabric Filters / 107
4.1.2.4 Reverse-Air Cleaned Fabric Filter / 110
4.1.2.4.1 Reverse Air / 110
4.1.2.5 Pulse-Jet Cleaned Fabric Filter / 113
4.1.2.5.1 Pulse Jet / 113
viii

4.1.2.6 Other Fabric Filter Designs / 117

4.1.2.6.1 Sonic Horns / 118
4.1.2.6.2 Cartridge Collectors / 118
4.1.3 Fabric Characteristics / 119
4.1.3.1 Case Study / 121
4.1.4 Collection Efficiency / 122
4.1.5 Applicability / 123
4.1.6 Energy and Other Secondary Environmental Impacts of Fabric
Filter Baghouses / 124
4.1.6.1 Filtration Processes / 124
4.1.6.2 Example / 125
4.1.6.3 Treatments and Finishes / 125
4.1.7 Records of Routine Baghouse Operation and Baghouse
Maintenance / 129
4.1.7.1 Why Keep Records? / 129
4.1.7.2 What Records to Keep? / 129
4.1.7.3 Baghouse Maintenance / 130
4.1.8 References / 132

4.2 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS 135

4.2.1 Particle Collection / 135
4.2.1.1 Electric Field / 137
4.2.1.2 Corona Generation / 137
4.2.1.3 Particle Charging / 138
4.2.1.4 Particle Collection / 139
4.2.2 Penetration Mechanisms / 141
4.2.2.1 Back Corona / 141
4.2.2.2 Dust Reentrainment / 141
4.2.2.3 Dust Sneakage / 142
4.2.3 Types of ESPs / 142
4.2.3.1 Dry ESPs / 142
4.2.3.2 Specific Collecting Area (SCA) / 143
4.2.3.3 SCA Procedure with Known Migration
Velocity / 143
4.2.3.4 Full SCA Procedure / 144
4.2.3.5 SCA for Tubular Precipitators / 150
4.2.3.6 Flow Velocity / 150
4.2.3.7 Pressure Drop Calculations / 151
4.2.3.8 Particle Characteristics / 152
 ix

4.2.3.9 Gas Characteristics / 153

4.2.3.10 Cleaning / 154
4.2.3.11 Construction Features / 155
4.2.3.12 Problems and Test Methods Associated with Dry
ESPs / 155
4.2.3.13 Wet Electrostatic Precipitator (Wet ESP) / 157
4.2.3.13.1 Designs, Configurations, Materials, and
Operational Aspects / 157
4.2.3.13.2 Common Elements of Wet
ESPs / 160
4.2.3.13.3 Parallel Plate Designs / 160
4.2.3.13.4 Tubular Designs / 161
4.2.3.13.5 Advantages Associated with Wet
ESPs / 161
4.2.3.13.6 Operational Issues / 161
4.2.3.13.6.1 Pre-Scrubbing / 162
4.2.3.13.6.2 Washdown Sprays and
Weirs / 162
4.2.3.13.6.3 Wet/dry Interface / 162
4.2.3.13.6.4 Current Suppression / 162
4.2.3.13.6.5 Sparking / 162
4.2.3.13.6.6 Tracking / 162
4.2.3.13.6.7 Mist Elimination / 162
4.2.3.13.7 Various Other Issues / 163
4.2.3.13.8 Efficiencies and Power
Requirements / 163
4.2.3.13.9 Design Factors Affecting Efficiency / 163
4.2.3.13.9.1 SCA / 163
4.2.3.13.9.2 Electrode Designs—
Collecting Surfaces / 163
4.2.3.13.9.3 Electrode Designs—
Discharge Surfaces / 164
4.2.3.13.10 Materials of Construction / 164
4.2.3.13.11 Wet ESP Verdict / 164
4.2.3.14 Wire-Plate ESPs / 165
4.2.3.15 Wire-Pipe ESPs / 165
4.2.3.16 Other ESP Designs / 165
4.2.4 Collection Efficiency / 167
4.2.5 Applicability / 168
4.2.6 ESP Performance Models / 168
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x

4.2.7 Energy and Other Secondary Environmental Impacts

of ESPs / 171
4.2.8 References / 173

4.3 WET SCRUBBERS 175

4.3.1 Particle Collection and Penetration Mechanisms / 175
4.3.2 Types of Wet Scrubbers / 177
4.3.2.1 Spray Chambers / 177
4.3.2.2 Packed-Bed Scrubbers / 178
4.3.2.3 Impingement-Plate Scrubbers / 178
4.3.2.4 Mechanically Aided Scrubbers (MAS) / 179
4.3.2.5 Venturi Scrubbers / 179
4.3.2.6 Orifice Scrubbers / 180
4.3.2.7 Condensation Scrubbers / 180
4.3.2.8 Charged Scrubbers / 181
4.3.2.9 Fiber-Bed Scrubbers / 181
4.3.3 Collection Efficiency / 181
4.3.4 Applicability / 182
4.3.5 Energy and Other Secondary Environmental Impacts of
Scrubber Systems / 183
4.3.6 References / 184

4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY VERIFICATION

AND BAGHOUSE FILTRATION PRODUCTS 185
4.4.1 ETV Program Overview / 185
4.4.2 Air Pollution Control Center (APCT) / 188
4.4.3 BFP / 189
4.4.4 Test Apparatus and Procedure / 190
4.4.5 BFP Published Verifications / 192
4.4.6 Environmental, Health, and Regulatory Background / 195
4.4.6.1 Outcomes / 198
4.4.6.1.1 Pollutant Reduction Outcomes / 201
4.4.6.1.2 Human Health and Environmental
Outcomes / 202
4.4.6.1.3 Regulatory Compliance Outcomes / 203
4.4.6.1.4 Economic and Financial Outcomes / 204
4.4.6.1.5 Scientific Advancement Outcomes / 205
4.4.6.1.6 Technology Acceptance and Use
Outcomes / 205
 xi

Appendix A: Methods for Baghouse Filtration Productions

Outcomes / 206
4.4.7 References / 210

4.5 COST CONSIDERATIONS 211

4.5.1 EPA OAQPS Methodology / 211
4.5.1.1 Costs of Fabric Filters / 211
4.5.1.1.1 Capital Costs of Fabric Filters / 212
4.5.1.1.2 Annual Costs of Fabric Filters / 214
4.5.1.2 Costs of Electrostatic Precipitators / 214
4.5.1.2.1 Capital Costs of Electrostatic
Precipitators / 215
4.5.1.2.2 Annual Costs of Electrostatic
Precipitators / 216
4.5.1.3 Costs of PM Wet Scrubbers / 216
4.5.1.3.1 Capital Costs of Wet Scrubbers / 216
4.5.1.3.2 Annual Costs of Wet Scrubbers / 218
4.5.2 Edmisten and Bunyard Cost Analysis Methodology / 218
4.5.2.1 Capital Investment / 218
4.5.2.2 Maintenance and Operation / 219
4.5.2.3 Capital Charges / 219
4.5.2.4 Annualized Cost / 219
4.5.2.5 Annual Operating Cost for Air Pollution Control
Equipment / 220
4.5.2.6 Annual Baghouse Operating Cost / 220
4.5.2.7 Baghouse Electrical Costs / 221
4.5.2.8 Baghouse Annual Operating Cost / 221
4.5.2.8.1 Example 1—Baghouse Costs / 221
4.5.2.8.1.1 Input Data / 222
4.5.2.9 Maintenance Cost Input Data / 222
4.5.2.10 Annual Operating Costs Calculation / 224
4.5.2.11 Total Annualized Cost / 224
4.5.3 Example 2—Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
vs. Baghouse / 225
4.5.4 References / 227

5 NANOPARTICULATES 228
5.1 What Is a Nanoparticle? / 229
5.2 What Is Nanotechnology? / 230
xii

5.3 What Is Nanotoxicology? / 231

5.4 Health Concerns/Issues / 232
5.5 Ongoing Research / 233
5.6 Current Organizations/Research / 236
5.7 Diesel Nanoparticulate Matter / 238
5.8 Nanofilters/Nanotechnology in the Fabric Filter Industry / 239
5.9 Additional Research Concerning Nanofiber Filtration / 242
5.10 References / 243

Index 247
CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Overview of Particulate Matter (PM) Control / 1
1.2 PM / 2
1.3 PM10 / 4
1.4 PM2.5 / 10
1.4.1 PM2.5 Monitoring Goals / 10
1.4.2 PM2.5 Program Objectives / 10
1.4.3 PM2.5 Data Uses / 10
1.4.4 Trends in PM2.5 / 11
1.4.5 Nanoparticles / 19
1.5 The Scientific Basis for Ambient Air Quality Standards / 19
1.6 Primary Standards vs. Secondary Standards / 20
1.7 PM Effects of Concern / 20
1.7.1 Secondary Effects / 21
1.8 Who Is Most at Risk? / 21
1.9 Current Legislation / 22
1.9.1 Federal Legislation / 22
1.9.1.1 Form of the Standard / 22
1.9.1.2 Standard Level / 22
1.9.1.3 Averaging Times / 23
1.9.2 State Legislation / 23
1.9.2.1 Enforcement Responsibilities / 23
1.9.2.2 Enforcement Flexibility / 24
v
vi

1.9.2.3 Staffing and Other Practical Concerns / 24

1.9.2.4 National Variations in Enforcement / 24
1.9.2.5 Permitting—A Tool Used to Achieve
Early Enforcement / 24
1.10 References / 25

2 HEALTH EFFECTS 26
2.1 Results of Recent Studies / 29
2.1.1 PM2.5 vs. PM10-2.5, PM10, and Coarser
Particles / 30
2.1.2 Air Pollution Species and Health Effects / 33
2.2 EPA Position on Certain Health Effects / 33
2.2.1 Premature Deaths / 34
2.2.2 Respiratory Illness in Children / 34
2.2.3 Cardiovascular Illness / 37
2.3 References / 38

3 AIR MONITORING 41

3.1 AMBIENT AIR MONITORING METHODS 43

3.1.1 Introduction and Scope / 43
3.1.2 Terminology / 44
3.1.3 Summary of Test Method / 48
3.1.4 Apparatus / 49
3.1.5 Procedures / 55
3.1.6 PM2.5 Test Procedures / 55
3.1.7 PM2.5 Measurement Range / 58
3.1.8 Calculations / 58
3.1.9 Calibration and Maintenance / 59
3.1.10 Precision and Bias / 59
3.1.11 Endnotes / 60
3.1.12 References / 60

3.2 EMISSION MEASUREMENT METHODS 62

3.2.1 List of EPA PM Mass Measurement Test Methods / 63
3.2.2 EPA Stationary (Point) Source PM Mass Measurement Test
Methods / 64
3.2.2.1 EPA Test Method 5 for Total PM Mass / 64
3.2.2.2 EPA Test Method 5 Variations: 5A–5H / 68
 vii

3.2.3 EPA Test Methods for PM10 from Stationary Sources / 72

3.2.3.1 Method 201: Determination of PM10 Emissions—
Exhaust Gas Recycle Procedure / 72
3.2.3.2 Methods 201A: Determination of PM10 Emissions—
Constant Sampling Rate Procedure / 75
3.2.4 EPA Test Method 17: Determination of PM Emissions from
Stationary Sources—In-Stack Filtration Method / 75
3.2.5 Method 202 for Condensable PM (CPM) Measurement / 78
3.2.6 CPM Issues / 79
3.2.7 Summary of CTM 39 / 80
3.2.8 Summary of CTM 40 / 84
3.2.9 Endnotes / 86
3.2.10 References / 87

4 EMISSION CONTROL METHODS 91

4.1 FABRIC FILTER/BAGHOUSES 93

4.1.1 Fabric Filters—Introduction and Theory / 93
4.1.1.1 Particle Collection and Penetration
Mechanisms / 95
4.1.1.2 Pressure Drop / 97
4.1.1.3 Experimental Measurements of K2—Specific Cake
Coefficient / 98
4.1.1.4 Pressure Drop in Multicompartment
Baghouses / 100
4.1.1.5 Gas-to-Cloth (G/C) Ratio / 101
4.1.2 Types of Fabric Filters / 101
4.1.2.1 Cleaning Techniques / 101
4.1.2.2 Filtration Fabrics and Fiber Types / 102
4.1.2.2.1 Filtration Fabrics / 104
4.1.2.2.2 Important Fiber Characteristics / 104
4.1.2.2.3 Fabric Types / 105
4.1.2.2.3.1 Woven Fabric / 105
4.1.2.2.3.2 Nonwoven Fabrics / 106
4.1.2.3 Shaker-Cleaned Fabric Filters / 107
4.1.2.4 Reverse-Air Cleaned Fabric Filter / 110
4.1.2.4.1 Reverse Air / 110
4.1.2.5 Pulse-Jet Cleaned Fabric Filter / 113
4.1.2.5.1 Pulse Jet / 113
viii

4.1.2.6 Other Fabric Filter Designs / 117

4.1.2.6.1 Sonic Horns / 118
4.1.2.6.2 Cartridge Collectors / 118
4.1.3 Fabric Characteristics / 119
4.1.3.1 Case Study / 121
4.1.4 Collection Efficiency / 122
4.1.5 Applicability / 123
4.1.6 Energy and Other Secondary Environmental Impacts of Fabric
Filter Baghouses / 124
4.1.6.1 Filtration Processes / 124
4.1.6.2 Example / 125
4.1.6.3 Treatments and Finishes / 125
4.1.7 Records of Routine Baghouse Operation and Baghouse
Maintenance / 129
4.1.7.1 Why Keep Records? / 129
4.1.7.2 What Records to Keep? / 129
4.1.7.3 Baghouse Maintenance / 130
4.1.8 References / 132

4.2 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS 135

4.2.1 Particle Collection / 135
4.2.1.1 Electric Field / 137
4.2.1.2 Corona Generation / 137
4.2.1.3 Particle Charging / 138
4.2.1.4 Particle Collection / 139
4.2.2 Penetration Mechanisms / 141
4.2.2.1 Back Corona / 141
4.2.2.2 Dust Reentrainment / 141
4.2.2.3 Dust Sneakage / 142
4.2.3 Types of ESPs / 142
4.2.3.1 Dry ESPs / 142
4.2.3.2 Specific Collecting Area (SCA) / 143
4.2.3.3 SCA Procedure with Known Migration
Velocity / 143
4.2.3.4 Full SCA Procedure / 144
4.2.3.5 SCA for Tubular Precipitators / 150
4.2.3.6 Flow Velocity / 150
4.2.3.7 Pressure Drop Calculations / 151
4.2.3.8 Particle Characteristics / 152
 ix

4.2.3.9 Gas Characteristics / 153

4.2.3.10 Cleaning / 154
4.2.3.11 Construction Features / 155
4.2.3.12 Problems and Test Methods Associated with Dry
ESPs / 155
4.2.3.13 Wet Electrostatic Precipitator (Wet ESP) / 157
4.2.3.13.1 Designs, Configurations, Materials, and
Operational Aspects / 157
4.2.3.13.2 Common Elements of Wet
ESPs / 160
4.2.3.13.3 Parallel Plate Designs / 160
4.2.3.13.4 Tubular Designs / 161
4.2.3.13.5 Advantages Associated with Wet
ESPs / 161
4.2.3.13.6 Operational Issues / 161
4.2.3.13.6.1 Pre-Scrubbing / 162
4.2.3.13.6.2 Washdown Sprays and
Weirs / 162
4.2.3.13.6.3 Wet/dry Interface / 162
4.2.3.13.6.4 Current Suppression / 162
4.2.3.13.6.5 Sparking / 162
4.2.3.13.6.6 Tracking / 162
4.2.3.13.6.7 Mist Elimination / 162
4.2.3.13.7 Various Other Issues / 163
4.2.3.13.8 Efficiencies and Power
Requirements / 163
4.2.3.13.9 Design Factors Affecting Efficiency / 163
4.2.3.13.9.1 SCA / 163
4.2.3.13.9.2 Electrode Designs—
Collecting Surfaces / 163
4.2.3.13.9.3 Electrode Designs—
Discharge Surfaces / 164
4.2.3.13.10 Materials of Construction / 164
4.2.3.13.11 Wet ESP Verdict / 164
4.2.3.14 Wire-Plate ESPs / 165
4.2.3.15 Wire-Pipe ESPs / 165
4.2.3.16 Other ESP Designs / 165
4.2.4 Collection Efficiency / 167
4.2.5 Applicability / 168
4.2.6 ESP Performance Models / 168
x

4.2.7 Energy and Other Secondary Environmental Impacts

of ESPs / 171
4.2.8 References / 173

4.3 WET SCRUBBERS 175

4.3.1 Particle Collection and Penetration Mechanisms / 175
4.3.2 Types of Wet Scrubbers / 177
4.3.2.1 Spray Chambers / 177
4.3.2.2 Packed-Bed Scrubbers / 178
4.3.2.3 Impingement-Plate Scrubbers / 178
4.3.2.4 Mechanically Aided Scrubbers (MAS) / 179
4.3.2.5 Venturi Scrubbers / 179
4.3.2.6 Orifice Scrubbers / 180
4.3.2.7 Condensation Scrubbers / 180
4.3.2.8 Charged Scrubbers / 181
4.3.2.9 Fiber-Bed Scrubbers / 181
4.3.3 Collection Efficiency / 181
4.3.4 Applicability / 182
4.3.5 Energy and Other Secondary Environmental Impacts of
Scrubber Systems / 183
4.3.6 References / 184

4.4 ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY VERIFICATION

AND BAGHOUSE FILTRATION PRODUCTS 185
4.4.1 ETV Program Overview / 185
4.4.2 Air Pollution Control Center (APCT) / 188
4.4.3 BFP / 189
4.4.4 Test Apparatus and Procedure / 190
4.4.5 BFP Published Verifications / 192
4.4.6 Environmental, Health, and Regulatory Background / 195
4.4.6.1 Outcomes / 198
4.4.6.1.1 Pollutant Reduction Outcomes / 201
4.4.6.1.2 Human Health and Environmental
Outcomes / 202
4.4.6.1.3 Regulatory Compliance Outcomes / 203
4.4.6.1.4 Economic and Financial Outcomes / 204
4.4.6.1.5 Scientific Advancement Outcomes / 205
4.4.6.1.6 Technology Acceptance and Use
Outcomes / 205
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