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What general education
interventions should be
tried on a short-term basis?

Is there a possibility that the

student has a disability and
needs further assessment?

Student is referred
or is not referred.

Who are the teachers, therapists, or other

professionals who should be involved?
What assessment approaches or procedures
are indicated?

Identify individuals responsible for

assessment and identify assessment
approaches and procedures.

Does the student have a disability?

What disability does the student have?
Does the student meet the eligibility
criteria for special education services?

The student does or

does not meet the
criteria for eligibility.
 Assessment of
Children and Youth
with Special Needs

F I F T H E D I T I O N

Libby G. Cohen
University of Southern Maine

Loraine J. Spenciner
University of Maine at Farmington

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
Vice President and Editorial Director: Cover Designer: Karen Noferi
Jeffery W. Johnston Cover Art: Zhu Qing
Executive Editor: Ann Castel Davis Media Producer: Autumn Benson
Editorial Assistant: Andrea Hall Media Project Manager: Noelle Chun
Marketing Manager: Krista Clark Full-Service Project Management: Aptara®, Inc.
Project Manager: Kerry Rubadue Composition: Aptara®, Inc.
Operations Specialist: Michelle Klein Printer/Binder: Courier Kendallville
Senior Art Director: Jayne Conte Cover Printer: Moore Langen
Text Designer: Aptara®, Inc. Text Font: StoneSerif

Credits and acknowledgments for materials borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in
this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text.

Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the
Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet
addresses listed in this textbook will change.

Photo Credits: Quanlin Huang, p. iii (top) Zhu Qing, cover, p. iii (bottom); Kali9/E+/Getty Images, p. 3;
Dragon Images/Shutterstock, p. 18; Robert Kneschke/Shutterstock, p. 35; Monkey Business Images/
Shutterstock, pp. 51, 73, 211 Zurijeta/Shutterstock, p. 85; ZouZou/Shutterstock, p. 103; Lisa F. Young/
Shutterstock, p. 129; Creatas/Thinkstock, pp. 163, 285; Moodboard/Getty Images, p. 191; Eyecandy Images/
Thinkstock, p. 230; Fuse/Thinkstock, p. 248; Moodboard/Thinkstock, p. 270; Vladgrin/Shutterstock, p. 301;
Bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock, p. 315; iStock/Thinkstock, p. 343.

Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States
of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher
prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material
from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake
Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cohen, Libby G.
Assessment of children and youth with special needs/Libby G. Cohen, University of Southern Maine,
Loraine J. Spenciner, University of Maine at Farmington.—Fifth edition.
pages cm
ISBN 978-0-13-357107-3
1. Psychological tests for children. 2. Child development—Testing. 3. Youth—Psychological testing.
4. Adolescence. 5. Behavioral assessment of children. 6. Behavioral assessment of teenagers.
7. Educational tests and measurements. I. Spenciner, Loraine J. II. Title.
BF722.C638 2015
371.26—dc23
2013045250

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-13-357107-6

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-357107-3
THE COVER IMAGE, Holding the Umbrella for You, is a watercolor and an accompanying poem which is part of a series of one hundred
paintings and poems that were completed by Zhu Qing over a period of one hundred days, painting a picture each day. Zhu Qing is
a senior student at Beijing University of Technology in Beijing, China. She hopes that through her paintings the world will become a
little bit more kind.

Original text in Chinese

Translated:
Holding the Umbrella for You
It’s raining
Umbrellas in the street
Large and small
But I have the confidence
To make you see easily
The one umbrella
I am holding for You
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

New to This Edition

The purpose of the fifth edition of Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs is to
present future and experienced educators and other professionals with an up-to-date under-
standing of contemporary perspectives on the assessment of children and youth. This edition
expands previous coverage of both traditional and contemporary assessment approaches.
The text explains various assessment approaches in detail that can be implemented by teach-
ers and other professionals and discusses individual tests at length

New to this edition is:

• To enhance affordability and portability, this exciting new edition is available as a

Pearson eText. With the eText students can easily take and share notes, highlight, and
search for key concepts.
• A pedagogical strategy to assist the reader in understanding and reflecting on the
content material was added. Pause and Consider sections, embedded within the chapters,
provide thought-provoking questions, encouraging the reader’s active involvement.
These sections also support the reader’s use of suggested resources to discover additional
information.
• The Snapshots features reflect increased diversity in schools, relevance, and the readers’
involvement.
• In addition, this edition includes a new classroom-based assessment cycle, including the
characteristics of classroom assessment and the approaches that teachers use.
• Expanded discussions of classroom assessment practices will assist the reader in devel-
oping a greater understanding of the role of the special educator in inclusive settings
and in response to intervention (RTI) schoolwide assessment practices, which are imple-
mented to assess and monitor all children’s academic work, behaviors, and progress.
• Furthermore, a new section on interpreting assessment information (Chapter 7) pro-
vides the reader with numerous examples of how to interpret class-room assessment
approaches, observations, and standardized assessments.
• Each chapter now includes the latest information on assessment tests, tools, measures,
techniques, and approaches with an emphasis on assessment approaches, such as curric-
ulum-based assessment and informal tools that class-room teachers can use.

Upon completing this textbook, the reader should have acquired knowledge, under-
standing and skills related to the special education assessment process, including referral for
special education services, response to intervention, assessment timelines, eligibility require-
ments, monitoring, and evaluating student progress. The reader should be able to discuss
various approaches to assessing academic and behavioral concerns and be able to compare
and contrast specific approaches and implement them. Given assessment information, the
reader should be able to interpret the assessment results and explain the results to peers. The
reader should be able to describe how to use and interpret assessment information, write as-
sessment reports, tailor interventions, and evaluate students’ progress.
Major topics covered in this edition include the following:

• Response to intervention This chapter (Chapter 2) describes the essential compo-

nents of response to intervention (RTI). The reader follows examples of the use of RTI for

v
vi Preface

students who experience difficulty in literacy (reading, written language, and/or spelling),
mathematics, and behaviors. The chapter discussion includes examples describing when RTI
becomes a prereferral for special education services.
• In-depth considerations of recent research on assessment practices Becoming a
professional involves understanding how special educators and other school personnel use
research findings to inform assessment practices. Many of the chapters in this new edition
contain summaries of important research findings. For example, in Chapter 2, we learn that,
based on the research, curriculum-based measurement is a highly effective assessment prac-
tice for monitoring and evaluating progress for students with disabilities.
• Universal design and assistive technology Universal design concepts applied to
assessment practices hold much promise, allowing many children and youth with disabilities
to demonstrate what they know and can do alongside peers without disabilities. For other
students, the use of assistive technology devices allows access to the same assessment mate-
rial as their peers without disabilities. Throughout this new edition, various chapters embed
discussions of how special educators are applying universal design, accommodations, and
assistive technology in practice.
• Accommodations and modifications This edition expands previous discussions of
the use of accommodations and modifications in assessment activities. Chapter 1 includes
examples of typical accommodations and modifications used during the assessment process.
• The role of families in the assessment process Enhanced emphasis on the role of
families in the assessment process helps the reader understand both federal mandates and
best practices. Chapter 4 provides an expanded discussion of professional activities and the
importance of being responsive to the diversity of families. The reader is encouraged to con-
sider relevant research such as parent involvement and the perception of special education
services. Chapters 10, 11, and 14 describe contemporary approaches to assessing reading,
writing, spelling, and mathematics and suggest ways that educators can share this informa-
tion with peers and family members and implement approaches that help to assess aca-
demic progress.
• Students with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds Following the lead of
previous editions, the fifth edition of Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs con-
tains strands that run through most chapters. The reader will find that the responding to
diversity strand has been expanded and updated to include best practices. Chapters 2 and
3 provide up-to-date information on implementing a range of assessment approaches in
schools. Chapter 13 discusses the changing demographics of the school population and the
new challenges of assessing oral language skills when students are learning English as a sec-
ond or third language.
• Contemporary approaches to the assessment of mathematics and literacy Readers
will be able to explain and implement various approaches to the assessment of reading, writ-
ing, spelling, and mathematics. Readers will be able to convey ways in which standardized
achievement tests, curriculum-based assessment, curriculum-based measurement, progress
monitoring, and performance-based and informal approaches can be used in the assessment
of literacy.
• Standardized instruments, with the latest updates Each content area chapter, in-
cluding reading, written language, oral language, and mathematics, includes updated stand-
ardized assessments. Additional chapters on topics including cognitive development, behav-
ior, young children, and youth in transition also provide the reader with descriptions of the
most recent editions of relevant assessment instruments.
• Curriculum-based assessment and curriculum-based measurement The fifth
edition provides the reader with an in-depth foundation of curriculum-based measurement
(CBM), beginning in Chapter 2. Chapters 10, 11, 12, and 14 illustrate the use of these assess-
ment approaches in various areas of the curriculum.
 Preface vii

• Interpreting tests and writing reports Interpreting assessment information is a key

skill for special educators and other professionals working with children and youth with dis-
abilities. Chapter 7 provides an expanded discussion of interpretation, with new examples of
assessment information and Web-based resources.
• Assessment of young children Chapter 17 in this edition contains a complete up-
date of standardized instruments appropriate for screening young children and determining
eligibility for services. The chapter includes a new section on contemporary assessment ap-
proaches and discusses how parents are involved in the assessment process and ways that
parents provide information to team members.
• Transition assessment The transition chapter, Chapter 18, has been revised and
updated to include recent research. Readers should be able to explain the purposes of transi-
tion assessment and ways in which students’ transition needs and preferences are assessed.
Person-centered planning and self-determination are emphasized.

Organization
Several themes appear throughout the book. Each chapter begins with a set of objectives. We
hope that the reader will use these objectives as guideposts in learning. Each chapter con-
tains an Overview section that discusses theories, perspectives, and conceptual frameworks.
Features called Tests-at-a-Glance provide brief information about specific standardized assess-
ment instruments; Snapshots examine individual students and teachers so that the reader
may deepen understanding and involvement in the examples. Research-Based Practices de-
scribe research findings, Pause and Consider involve the reader in understanding and reflect-
ing upon the material, and Responding to Diversity considers issues of sensitivity and respon-
siveness to students and the uniqueness of their families. Key points from each chapter are
summarized.

Acknowledgments
We dedicate this book to current and future teachers—we admire and respect you for your
dedication to improving the lives of children and youth. We extend our sincere apprecia-
tion to the many people who helped and supported us in the development of this book.
Thank you to our reviewers, who provided thoughtful and insightful reviews for the fifth
edition: Jeanette W. Farmer, Marshall University Graduate College; Merridi Haskell, Arizona
State University; Kathryn Klingler Tackett, George Mason University; and Joel Shapiro, Green
Mountain College.
Special thanks to colleagues, educators, and friends at the National Institute of Educa-
tion, Singapore, and the University of Maine at Farmington, who have shared their passions,
skills, and knowledge with us. We appreciate the comments by Mel Christensen and her
commitment as a future educator. We greatly fully acknowledge the assistance from Guanglei
Chen. Deep thanks to Ann Davis and Kerry Rubadue for their support of this fifth edition.
We are especially grateful to our families, Les, Seth, Gaby, Jay, Amy, Dave, Dina, Ben,
and Marina. We appreciate your continued support and good humor.
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This page intentionally left blank
Brief Contents

PART I Foundations of Assessment 1

Chapter 1 Understanding Assessment 3
Chapter 2 Response to Intervention 18
Chapter 3 Assessment Framework 35
Chapter 4 Involving Families 51

PART II Assessment Skills 71

Chapter 5 Reliability and Validity 73
Chapter 6 Developing Technical Skills 85
Chapter 7 Test Interpretation and Report Writing 103

PART III Behavior 127

Chapter 8 Observing, Interviewing, and Conferencing 129
Chapter 9 Behavior 163

PART IV Achievement 189

Chapter 10 Achievement: Overall Performance 191
Chapter 11 Reading 211
Chapter 12 Written Language 230
Chapter 13 Oral Language 248
Chapter 14 Mathematics 270
Chapter 15 Performance-Based, Authentic, and Portfolio Assessments 285

PART V Special Considerations 299

Chapter 16 Intelligence 301
Chapter 17 Young Children 315
Chapter 18 Youth in Transition 343

ix
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

PART I Foundations of Assessment 1

Chapter
1 Understanding Assessment 3
Overview 3
Assessment in the Classroom 4
Why Do Teachers Assess? 4
Response to Intervention 5
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act 5
Who Is Eligible for Special Education? 5
Multidisciplinary Teams 6
The Individualized Education Program 8
Special Considerations for Young Children 9
Transition Services 10
Procedures for Ensuring the Rights of Students and Families 10
Elementary and Secondary Education Act 11
Assessment Requirements 11
Alternative Assessments 13
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act 14
Professional Standards 15
Confidentiality 15
Responding to Diversity 15
Research-Based Practices 16
Summary 16
Questions for Reflection 17
References 17

Chapter
2 Response to Intervention 18
Overview 18
Introduction to Response to Intervention 18
Response to Intervention Basics 18
Universal Screening 19
High-Quality Evidence-Based Instruction 19
School–Parent Connections 19
Progress Monitoring 20
Multitiered Interventions 21
Responding to Diversity 25
Implementing RTI 26
Assessment of Student Performance 26
Curriculum-Based Measurement 27

xi
xii Contents

Reading 28
Written Language 28
Spelling 30
Mathematics 30
Behavior 31
Emerging Issues 33
Summary 33
Questions for Reflection 33
References 34

Chapter
3 Assessment Framework 35
Overview 35
Classroom-Based Assessment Cycle 35
Special Education Assessment Framework 38
Special Education: Assessment Questions, Purposes,
and Approaches 39
Assessment Questions 39
Assessment Purposes and Approaches 40
Responding to Diversity 44
Universal Design and Assessment Practices 46
Assessment of Assistive Technology Needs 46
Approaches to Assistive Technology Assessment 48
Summary 49
Questions for Reflection 49
References 49

Chapter
4 Involving Families 51
Overview 51
Understanding More About Families 52
Responding to Diversity 53
Aspirations 53
Assistance 55
Authority of the School 55
Child Rearing 55
Communication 55
Disability 55
Family Structure 56
Legal Status 56
Literacy and Language 56
Meetings and Support Groups 56
Parental Roles 56
Transient Status 57
 Contents xiii

Federal Legislation and the Role of Parents 57

Guaranteed Rights 57
The Assessment Process for Families of Young Children 57
Initial Questions and Decisions 58
Screening Questions and Decisions for Families 59
The Assessment Process for Families of Children and Youth 59
Addressing Parent Questions and Concerns 59
Referral and Decisions for the Team 60
Questions and Decisions in Determining Eligibility 60
Questions and Decisions in Planning Services 62
Questions and Decisions in Monitoring Services 62
Questions and Decisions in Evaluating Services 63
Techniques for Listening to and Understanding Parent
Perspectives 64
Interviews 65
Family Stories 67
Parent–Teacher Conferences 67
Summary 68
Questions for Reflection 69
References 69

PART II Assessment Skills 71

Chapter
5 Reliability and Validity 73
Overview 73
Reliability 73
Approach 1: Using Correlation Coefficients 74
Approach 2: Variances or Standard Deviations
of Measurement Errors 78
Approach 3: Item Response Theory (IRT) 79
Factors That Influence Reliability 79
Validity 79
Content Validity 80
Criterion-Related Validity 80
Construct Validity 81
Validity of Test Interpretations 82
Consequential Validity 82
Responding to Diversity: Fairness in Assessment 82
Equity 83
Nonbiased Assessment 83
Linguistic Diversity 83
Consideration of Adverse Consequences 83
Summary 84
Questions for Reflection 84
References 84
xiv Contents

Chapter
6 Developing Technical Skills 85
Overview 85
Standardized Tests 85
Standardization Sample 85
Norm-Referenced Tests 86
Criterion-Referenced Tests 86
Distinguishing Norm-Referenced Tests From Criterion-Referenced Tests 87
Scales of Measurement 87
Nominal Scale 87
Ordinal Scale 87
Interval Scale 88
Ratio Scale 88
Frequency Distribution 88
Normal Curve 89
Skewed Distributions 89
Measures of Central Tendency 89
Mean 89
Median 91
Mode 91
Standard Deviation 91
Types of Scores 91
Raw Scores 91
Percentage Scores 92
Derived Scores 92
Scores of Relative Standing 94
Basal and Ceiling Levels 96
Growth Scores 97
Standard Error of Measurement and Confidence Intervals 97
Standard Error of Measurement 97
Confidence Intervals 97
Scoring Guidelines 98
Completing the Test Record Form 98
Biographical Information 98
Chronological Age 98
Calculating Raw Scores 98
Transforming Raw Scores to Derived Scores 98
Graphing Scores 99
Interpreting Test Performance 99
Behavioral Observations 100
Observations of the Environment 100
Discussion of Results 100
How Should Assessment Approaches Be Evaluated? 101
Summary 102
Questions for Reflection 102
References 102
 Contents xv

Chapter
7 Test Interpretation and Report Writing 103
Overview 103
Interpreting Assessment Information 103
Introduction 103
Classroom Assessment 104
Observations 104
Standardized Assessments 105
Hypothesis Generation 107
Examiner Bias 108
Using Professional Knowledge 108
General Principles for Report Writing 109
Synthesizing Information 110
Writing the Report 114
Evaluating the Report 115
Types of Assessment Reports 115
Reports of Observations 116
Progress Reports 116
Individual Test Reports 119
Sharing Assessment Results With Others 122
Family Members 123
Students 123
National and Statewide Assessments 123
Summary 125
Questions for Reflection 125
References 125

PART III Behavior 127

Chapter
8 Observing, Interviewing, and Conferencing 129
Overview 129
Observations 129
Planning Observations 130
Observation Questions 131
Defining an Event or Behavior 131
Location 131
Documentation 131
Accuracy 132
Multiple Observations 132
Integration 132
Observing the Student 132
xvi Contents

Types of Observations 133

Anecdotal Record 134
Running Record 135
Event Recording 136
Duration Recording 138
Intensity Recording 139
Latency Recording 140
Interval Recording 140
Category Recording 141
Rating Scales 141
Checklists 144
Increasing Technical Skills in Conducting
Observations 144
Understanding More About Reliability 144
Errors of Omission 144
Errors of Commission 145
Errors of Transmission 145
Observer Drift 145
Reactivity 145
Understanding More About Validity 145
Developing Informal Norms 145
Observing the Classroom Environment 149
Physical Environment 149
Learning Environment 151
Social Environment 152
Interviews 158
Steps in Conducting Student Interviews 159
Questionnaires 159
Conferencing and Collaborating 160
Conferencing 160
Collaborating 161
Summary 161
Questions for Reflection 162
References 162

Chapter
9 Behavior 163
Overview 163
Adaptive Behavior 164
Supports 164
Standardized Instruments Evaluating Adaptive
Behavior 165
Adaptive Behavior Assessment System Second Edition 165
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition 166
Problem Behaviors 168
Responding to Diversity 169
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