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Music Cultures
in the United States

An Introduction

Edited by

Ellen Koskoff

ROUTLEDGE
NEW YORK AND LONDON
Published in 2005 by
Routledge
270 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10016

Published in Great Britain by

Routledge
2 Park Square
Milton Park, Abingdon,
Oxon OX14 4RN U.K.
www.routledge.co.uk

Copyright © 2005 by Routledge

Snapshot 3.2: Funk by Portia K. Maultsby (p. 75–81) was completed while the author was
a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, (1999–2000)
Stanford, California.

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group.

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system
without permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Music cultures in the United States : an introduction / Ellen Koskoff, editor.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-415-96588-8 (hb : alk. paper)—ISBN 0-415-96589-6 (pb : alk. paper)
1. Music—Social aspects—United States. 2. Music—-United States—History and criticism.
I. Koskoff, Ellen, 1943–
ML3917.U6M87 2005
306.4'842'0973—dc22
2004019853

ISBN 0-203-99716-6 Master e-book ISBN

To the wonderful musics and musicians in this book, and to the
wonderful scholars who came to know them.
CONTENTS

Introduction xi
Acknowledgments xiii

Part I Music in the United States: Historical and Cultural

Contexts 1
1 A Social-Historical Approach to Music in the
United States 3
Ellen Koskoff

2 Institutions and Processes Affecting Music

in the United States 23
Barry Bergey, Anthony Seeger, David Sanjek, Charlotte J. Frisbie,
Kai Fikentscher, and Robert Fink
Snapshot 2.1: A Navajo Medicine Bundle Is Repatriated 26
Snapshot 2.2: Disco and House Music 41
Snapshot 2.3: Marketing Classical Music 50

3 Social and Musical Identities 57

Adelaida Reyes, Ann Dhu McLucas, Ronald Radano,
Susan C. Cook, Terry E. Miller, Tamara Livingston,
Portia K. Maultsby, Susan Fast, and Jennifer Rycenga
Snapshot 3.1: Revivals 68
Snapshot 3.2: Funk 75
Snapshot 3.3: Led Zeppelin and the Construction
of Masculinity 89
Snapshot 3.4: The Influence of Asian Religious Ideas
on American Music 97

4 Musical and Social Interactions 103

James R. Cowdery, Victoria Lindsay Levine, Judith A. Gray,
Beverley Diamond, Barbara Benary, Jody Diamond,
Amy Ku’uleleialoha Stillman, and Steven Cornelius
Snapshot 4.1: Afro-Cuban Sacred Music in the
United States 108

vii
 Snapshot 4.2: Musical Interactions Among American
Indian Peoples 112
Snapshot 4.3: Indonesian Music and the American
Composer 122
Snapshot 4.4: Hawaiian Music Outside Hawai’i 128

Part II A Sampler of Music Cultures in the United States 137

5 American Indian Musical Cultures 139
Charlotte Heth, Victoria Lindsay-Levine, and Erik D. Gooding
Snapshot 5.1: Lakota Music 145
Snapshot 5:2: Music of the Northeast Indians 153

6 European American Musical Cultures 161

Carl Rahkonen, Christopher Goertzen,
Jennifer C. Post, and Mark Levy
Snapshot 6.1: British Ballads in the United States 166
Snapshot 6.2: German Music in the United States 174

7 African American Musical Cultures 185

Portia K. Maultsby, Mellonee V. Burnim, Dena J. Epstein,
Susan Oehler, Jacqueline Cogdell Dje Dje, David Evans,
and Thomas Riis
Snapshot 7.1: African American Cries, Calls, and Hollers 192
Snapshot 7.2: Musical Theater 216

8 Latin American Musical Cultures 243

Daniel Sheehy, Steven Loza, José R. Reyna,
and Steven Cornelius
Snapshot 8.1: Conjunto Music 249
Snapshot 8.2: Afro-Cuban Popular Musics 262

9 Asian American Musics 273

Terry E. Miller, Susan M. Asai, and Anne K. Rasmussen
Snapshot 9.1: Japanese Music in America 275
Snapshot 9.2: Middle Eastern Musics 287

Part III Global Musics in the United States 303

10 Contemporary Concert Musics 305
William Kearns, Rob Haskins, Steven Loza,
Josephine R.B. Wright, and Ingrid Monson
Snapshot 10.1: Latin American Music in Mid-Century Los
Angeles 308
Snapshot 10.2: Electronic Music in the
Twentieth Century 312

viii Contents
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 Snapshot 10.3: African American Concert Music
in the Twentieth Century 318

11 Popular Musics 341

Charles K. Wolfe, Rob Bowman, Sara Nicholson,
Dawn M. Norfleet, and Jeremy Wallach
Snapshot 11.1: Country Music 341
Snapshot 11.2: Rock and Roll and Rock Music 348
Snapshot 11.3: Hip-Hop and Rap 360
Snapshot 11.4: World Beat 370

Bibliography 379
Index 403

Contents ix
INTRODUCTION

Music Cultures in the United States presents a picture of the richly varied
and intricate tapestry of musical traditions now existing in the
United States, reflecting the interactive nature of musical cultures
and the variety of ways in which music is actually experienced in a
pluralistic society. Based on Volume 3 of the Garland Encyclopedia of
World Music (Routledge 2000), Music Cultures in the United States is an
updated and redesigned text for use in the classroom or by anyone
with a general interest in American music and its social and cultural
contexts.

HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANIZED

The volume is organized in three large sections: Part I, “Music in the
United States: Historical, Social, and Cultural Contexts” (Chapters
1–4), presents four chapters, each of which discusses an overarching
issue affecting music, its creation, performance, reception, and dis-
semination throughout the country. Chapter 1 presents a brief
overview of the social and musical history of the United States;
Chapter 2 discusses various social, political, and economic factors
that affect music making; Chapter 3 examines the role of class, race,
gender, and religion in the formation of social and musical identities
in the United States; and Chapter 4 discusses ways in which social
and musical interactions affect music as it adapts to different con-
texts and changing meanings.
Part II, “A Sampler of Music Cultures in the United States”
(Chapters 5—9), presents the musics of various socio-cultural groups
that have contributed to American musical life, beginning with

xi
 American Indian musical culture and continuing with immigrant
music cultures presented roughly in the order of their arrival and
development here. Part III, “Global Musics in the United States”
(Chapters 10–11), presents informative essays on concert musics
(classical and jazz) and on a wide array of popular musics found in
the United States and throughout the world today.
Within each chapter, we present short, but detailed, examples of
specific musical cultures, called Snapshots. These are small “ethno-
graphic moments,” or discussions of musical genres that have been
chosen to best illustrate issues or concepts under discussion. In
addition, a compact disc, with sound examples linked to the text
(starting in Chapter 5), is found at the back of this volume.
At the end of each chapter, we have included review questions
and projects that are both fun and instructive. Projects can be used
to stimulate written research or as the basis of group discussion. In
addition, important words, names, and concepts are indicated in the
margins throughout the book to help you more easily find and
remember information. Finally, a comprehensive glossary, bibliogra-
phy, discography, videography, and index are included at the back of
this volume.
Readers of this book are strongly urged to consult volume 3 of
the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music for many fuller discussions of
topics and other similar resources pertaining to the study of musical
life in the United States.

WHY CERTAIN MUSIC CULTURES (AND NOT OTHERS)

ARE DISCUSSED IN THIS BOOK
It would not be possible to discuss every music that has ever existed,
or continues to exist, within the United States, so certain choices had
to be made for this volume. We tended to privilege musics that are
not always discussed in standard histories and to put less emphasis,
especially in the recorded examples, on musics such as popular
music, classical music, and jazz, which are readily available through
other media.
We are also interested in preserving certain cultural and ethnic
boundaries, without essentializing them. That is, we recognize that
discussing music cultures in the United States from the perspective
of a group or social identity, including categories such as race, class,
or ethnicity, tends to “mark” and privilege these parameters over
others that may be fluid and self-defined. Our intention here is to
honor these parameters, while at the same time stressing the inter-
active, boundary-crossing nature of life in a pluralistic society. Thus,
we wish to stress that the realities of social and musical identity are
far more subtle than these categories imply, and you are cautioned
to see them here as starting, but not necessarily ending, points.

xii Introduction
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A book such as this is a collaborative effort and I would like to

acknowledge those who have contributed to its making here. First,
and foremost, I thank the many authors—and the musicians with
whom they worked—whose labors enliven these pages. It is to them
that this book is dedicated. I would also like to thank Richard Carlin
and the publishers of Routledge/Taylor and Francis for their help in
initiating this project and seeing it through to completion. The
snapshot on funk in Chapter 3 was completed while the author,
Portia K. Maultsby was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in
the Behavioral Sciences (1999—2000), Stanford, California. Love and
thanks go to two student readers, Hillary Overberg and Liisa
Ambegaokar Grigorov, whose eagle eyes caught many mistakes that
would otherwise have gone unnoticed. Thanks also to the
Smithsonian Institution’s Folkways Collection and to Michael
Tenzer and Robert Morris for permission to use their recent compo-
sitions here. Finally, I would like to thank my family for its contin-
ual support, love, and laughter.

Ellen Koskoff
Rochester, New York
April 2004

xiii
Part I
Music in the United States:
Historical, Social, and Cultural
Contexts
CHAPTER 1

A Social-Historical Approach
to Music in the United States
Ellen Koskoff

The United States of America, the fourth largest country in the

world, covers over 3.5 million square miles of land. From its highest
point, Mt. McKinley in Alaska, to its lowest in Death Valley,
California, this enormous land area encompasses deserts, imposing
mountain ranges, polar ice caps, lush woodlands, rainforests, rich
prairies, five time zones, and more than 280 million people of vary-
ing ethnicities, languages, and histories.
Unity in diversity is a common phrase often used today to describe
the people and social contexts of the United States. Home to people
of virtually all of the world’s social, ethnic, religious, and language
groups, the United States has embedded within its history, govern-
ment, and national consciousness the twin ideals of democracy and
equal human rights; although not always realized, these ideals have
motivated much social and musical activity within its borders.
Any discussion of music in the United States must take into
account the various contexts of its creation, performance, and mean-
ing. While reading this text, ask yourself these questions:

1. What part do specific geographical, historical, and cultural

contexts play in music making among highly diverse social
and cultural groups?
2. How are various group and individual identities realized or
marked through music and its performance?
3. How do people and their musics interact with, merge into,
or separate from one another to form distinct entities?

3
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