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CENTERING EDUCATIONAL
ADMINISTRATION
Cultivating Meaning,
Community, Responsibility
 Topics in Educational Leadership
Larry W. Hughes, Series Editor

Gaynor · Analyzing Problems in Schools and School Systems:

A Theoretical Approach

Earle/Kruse · Organizational Literacy for Educators

Shapiro/Stefkowitz · Ethical Leadership and Decision Making in

Education: Applying Theoretical Perspectives to Complex Dilemmas

Bizar/Barr, Eds. · School Leadership in Times of Urban Reform

Brouillette · Charter Schools: Lessons in School Reform

Fishbaugh/Schroth/Berkeley, Eds. · Ensuring Safe School

Environments: Exploring Issues—Seeking Solutions

Starratt · Centering Educational Administration: Cultivating Meaning,

Community, Responsibility
CENTERING EDUCATIONAL
ADMINISTRATION
Cultivating Meaning,
Community, Responsibility

Robert J. Starratt
Boston College

LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS

2003 Mahwah, New Jersey London
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

Copyright Ó 2003 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in
any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other
means, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers

10 Industrial Avenue
Mahwah, New Jersey 07430

Cover design by Kathryn Houghtaling Lacey

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Starratt, Robert J.
Centering educational administration : cultivating meaning, community, responsibility /
Robert J. Starratt.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8058-4238-1 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-8058-4239-X (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. School management and organization—Study and teaching (Higher). 2. School
administrators—Training of. I. Title.

LB2805 .S7438 2003

371.2¢0071¢1—dc21 2002192726
CIP

ISBN 1-4106-0730-5 Master e-book ISBN

Contents

Preface vii

PART I: ELEMENTS OF THE LEADER’S VISION 1

1 The Challenging World of Educational Leadership 3

2 Cultivating Meaning 27

3 Contested Meaning: Schooling Within the Legacy

of Modernity 43

4 Educating for Community: Modernity’s Challenge 66

5 Cultivating a Mature Community 81

6 Cultivating Responsibility 100

7 Cultivating Responsibility To and For Learning 122

8 Cultivating a Responsible Community 137

v
vi CONTENTS

PART II: BRINGING THE VISION TO REALITY 157

9 Cultivating a Perspective on Learning 159

10 Empowerment 183

11 Organic Management for Student Learning 197

12 Leading by Design: The Medium Is the Message 214

13 Leading a Learning Community 224

14 School Administration as Autobiography 242

Author Index 255

Subject Index 261

Preface

This book has been written out of a conviction that educational administra-
tor preparation programs need to become more responsive to changes and
challenges in the complex and dynamic social arena we call education.
These changes and challenges are embedded in the local and regional po-
litical context of schooling, in new approaches to teaching as a profession,
and in the federal and state public policy regarding standards of student
achievement. One of the first courses in a graduate program in educational
administration is usually a course on fundamentals or foundations of edu-
cational administration. This book is an attempt to help beginning adminis-
trators, or those seeking state certification to become administrators, get
started on the right foot in a program that will build on the perspectives de-
veloped in such a beginning course.
A fundamentals course should introduce the beginning administrator to
the essentials of administering an individual school or of being a member
of an administrative team in an individual school. Those who are moving
into district office administration or state education departments can learn
more about their responsibilities in courses dealing with district- or state-
level administration, although I would hope that those courses also point to
the individual school as the place where their efforts will bear fruit (El-
more, 2000).
Even when other fundamentals texts in educational administration con-
centrate on the individual school site, they tend to provide treatments of
discrete functions of administration. Hence, we find chapters dealing with
special education, extracurricular programs, testing and counseling pro-
grams, parent and community relations, scheduling, resource allocation,

vii
viii PREFACE

communication, decision making, delegating responsibilities, legal and

safety concerns, and so on. Again we find a diffusion of focus—a sampling
of functions that, although touching on real concerns for school adminis-
trators, reveal the trees but provide little sense of the forest. This book asks
the large question: What is fundamental to educational administration?
What is its center?
In response, we focus attention on three themes that are fundamental to
the work of educational administration: cultivating meaning, cultivating
community, and cultivating responsibility. These themes necessarily involve
perspectives derived from philosophical and sociological scholarship. In
some administrative preparation programs, students are encouraged to
take philosophy of education or sociology of education courses as a way to
develop a broad understanding of the contexts and purposes of school-
ing—an understanding that will enable them to bring these perspectives to
bear on their work of leading schools. Valuable as these courses are, they
are rarely taught with the work of school administration in mind, but as
more general courses for all students of education. This book attempts to
bring philosophical and sociological perspectives to the very work of ad-
ministration, suggesting that they illuminate the challenges that constitute
the substance of administrative work in education. With clarity about their
responsibilities in these three areas, administrators can provide a focus to
their decision making, resource allocation, communication processes, and
parent–community relations.

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN HISTORICAL

CONTEXT

There is an even more pressing need, however, for another change in the
fundamentals course. Past administration courses have tended to reflect
limited and fragmented conceptual frameworks that derive from earlier
historical and theoretical developments in the fields of education and edu-
cational administration. Murphy and Beck (1993) provided a historical
overview of the metaphorical themes that shaped understandings of
principalship during the past 70 years in the United States. Their study indi-
cates how the ways of understanding the principalship were influenced by
historical events such as the Great Depression, World War II, and the suc-
cess of the Soviet space program. The political and academic worlds influ-
enced different periods of school administration in the United States with
various concerns, such as social homogenization of disparate communities
of immigrants, scientific management, and accountability for measurable
student learning.
Whereas Beck and Murphy pointed to the fluctuations of thought about
school administration, the critiques of Greenfield (1991), Foster (1986),
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PREFACE ix

Bates (1984), Carr and Kemmis (1986), among others, challenge the
grounding of administrative theory and practice in rational decision mak-
ing and scientistic rationalism. This book stands firmly with their conten-
tions that much of what has been considered mainstream educational ad-
ministration literature makes unsupportable assumptions that (a) truly
professional administrators make rational decisions based on facts derived
from scientific research; (b) educational administrators work within (or
can create) rational organizational systems; and (c) they can control the
school as an organization (and, indeed, have the responsibility and right to
do so) by applying scientifically grounded knowledge to make the school
work according to rationally derived goals. We take up that criticism in the
early chapters of the book.

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND CRITICS

OF THE SCHOOLS

For the past quarter century, schools have come under relentless criticism
from both the right and the left. The criticism from the right, fueled by a re-
sentment toward “The 1960s,” when schools and universities were per-
ceived by critics as foundering in a directionless sea of permissiveness, has
focused on the supposed abandonment of “the three Rs”—the pandering
to fads such as nurturing self-esteem (disconnected, they assumed, from
the achievement of rigorous standards), multiculturalism (which was
equated with disparagement of patriotism as well as the Eurocentric can-
nons of literature and history), and creativity (equated with a standardless
aesthetic and anti-intellectual bias). The criticism from the left focused on
the school as an instrument of the sociopolitical reproduction of inequality
through its systems of curriculum tracking; the dead end of special educa-
tion programming; the ambivalence of bilingual programs toward foreign
cultures; the predominance of male perspectives in pedagogy, learning the-
ory, and curriculum programming; and the perpetuation of academic fail-
ure through bureaucratic labeling of at-risk student populations and the se-
rious lack of early resourcing of remedial programs in the early grades. In
other words, the left argued, schools have not responded to the “war on
poverty” and the racial desegregation of public life, nor to the emerging
promise of feminists perspectives in schools. Instead, schools have contin-
ued to pour the new wine of progressive public policy into the old wineskins
of institutional status-quo arrangements.
From either perspective, the primary villains were the mindless, ineffec-
tive educators who appeared rudderless—without a policy compass or the
leadership to articulate a clear direction for the school. Indeed, the critics
were right in this regard: The educational community seemed to lack the
x PREFACE

voices that could articulate a mission sufficiently broad and deep enough to
blunt the criticism of the right and the left by absorbing their concerns into
a larger synthesis of what kind of education was needed at this particular
historical era. Educational administrators, by and large, tutored in univer-
sity preparation programs to manage the daily operations of the schools ef-
ficiently (according to orthodox management and organizational theory),
while attempting to negotiate the local political climate (read: “Respond to
the centers of power in the community”), were apparently incapable of ris-
ing above the withering attacks of either side. Not energized by a large and
compelling vision of schooling, they continually found themselves in a reac-
tive stance, attempting to placate now one side, now another.
Gradually, the voices from the right have gained ascendancy in the for-
mation of public policy on education at both the state and federal levels.
The so-called education lobby representing teacher unions and school admin-
istrators either fought a rear-guard action of damage control or were not,
for all intents and purposes, heard at all in the public and political gather-
ings when “school reform” policy was being developed. The university com-
munity of educational administration scholars, by and large, did not partici-
pate in that policy formation, although individual scholars such as Joseph
Murphy, Alan Odden, Brian Caldwell, Michael Fullan, Richard Elmore,
and others stand out as educational administration academics with an artic-
ulate and broad view of schooling who actively participated in the policy
conversation. What appears, by hindsight, however, is that most university
preparation programs in educational administration have not attempted a
consistent, programmatic effort to assist administrators or administrators-
to-be with a deeply grounded educational platform about schooling that
would enable them to speak out in public fora in response to the critics and
local policymakers and powerful interest groups.

CRITICISM AN OPPORTUNITY FOR DIALOGUE

By hindsight, we can appreciate that the criticism of both right and left, al-
though often exaggerated, one dimensional, and cruel in singling out edu-
cators for exclusive blame for situations over which they have limited con-
trol, offered potential opportunities to engage in productive dialogue. To
toot my own horn, I cite an example from an occasion when, as a newly ar-
rived principal, I was conducting a discussion at a schoolwide evening with
parents. After citing the school’s progress in various improvements, and af-
ter some polite comments from the parents, a voice from the back of the au-
dience asked in an accusatory tone, “Yes, but what are you doing to improve
discipline at the school?” The question brought several approving nods
from the audience, and they leaned forward with new interest in what I
PREFACE xi

might say. Instead of defending our discipline policies, I turned the ques-
tion around and asked about discipline in the home. I cited several exam-
ples of what I considered parental failure to teach their children responsi-
bility for following family rules and expectations—simple things like
cleaning up after themselves, sharing their toys with their brothers and sis-
ters, settling the inevitable sibling rivalries in nonviolent ways, and helping
with the daily and weekly household chores. I concluded by asking the par-
ents to consider the difficulty of expecting youngsters to follow simple rules
in schools when parents allowed their children free reign at home. The
point was not for us to blame one another for perceived failures in the area
of discipline, but to seek common ground in this area. The exchange led to
follow-up conversations about how the school and the home might cooper-
ate in supporting each other’s efforts in promoting a greater sense of re-
sponsibility in our youngsters.
Three things stand out in that example. One, I refused to take the
whole blame for what was a problem shared by the home and school. Sec-
ond, I suggested that the school and home might consider how our collec-
tive action could benefit our youngsters’ development. Third, the subse-
quent conversations began to place the issue of discipline in a learning
context—namely, how to encourage responsibility through a variety of
proactively and mutually planned, repeated learning experiences, rather
than focusing on a reactionary emphasis on punishment. Both sides of the
discussion were able to recast the problem into a broader discussion of
teaching values.
The lesson of the past quarter century is that we have to move beyond de-
fensive, reactionary, and sometimes disparaging responses to the critics of
the school. We need to invite them to participate in conversations about
schooling that take their concerns seriously and bring those concerns to a
broader and deeper conversation about the large human issues involved in
schooling. As Marty (1997) suggested, that conversation needs to begin
with stories that exemplify concerns. Through the exchange of stories,
rather than through arguments over abstract principles, conflicting groups
can develop an empathy toward the other position.

EMERGING UNDERSTANDINGS

In looking for emerging understandings of the principalship, Beck and

Murphy (1993) summarized the sizable recent literature that indicates a
shift of major proportions in understanding the context, process, and pur-
pose of schooling. This shift, in turn, implies new ways to understand the
principalship. Principals—and by implication other school-based adminis-
trators—are coming to be seen as leaders, servants, organizational archi-
xii PREFACE

tects, social architects, educators, moral agents, and persons in a commu-

nity. This book is in sympathy with this literature in its (a) espousal of a
more collegial style of relationships among educators in a variety of roles
who regard themselves as professionals, (b) appreciation of the need for
teacher leadership and full participation by teachers in renewal of the
school, and (c) focus on the human development of persons.
The recent insistence that schools nurture the success of all students
rather than sort the more able from the less able by means of standardized
test results finds support in our themes of cultivating meaning, community,
and responsibility. The emerging understanding of knowledge as a social
construct—as something that develops in social interaction focused on
problems seen in specific contexts rather than knowledge as an external en-
tity existing independently of the historically situated human subject—in-
fluences the development of the central themes in the book. The book also
supports the concern that professionalism go beyond a distorted scientism
of facts divorced from values to a recognition of the educational profes-
sional’s profound value commitments to the human growth of children in a
free and open community. Besides these emerging concerns and under-
standings highlighted by Beck and Murphy, there are other emerging influ-
ences within the larger culture that affect the way we think about education
and educational administration.

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION FACES CULTURAL

CHALLENGES

In addition to being grounded in much of the changed perceptions about

schooling and administering schools, the book is also grounded in a judg-
ment that the schools cannot continue to ignore the major sociocultural
challenges facing American society. If the mission of the school is to pre-
pare future members of American society who will live in the 21st century,
the school must interpret and respond to major challenges facing that soci-
ety in the present and foreseeable future. Those challenges appear to be
threefold: (a) a loss, trivialization, or distortion of the deeper meanings
that undergird human life; (b) excessive if not exclusive emphasis on the
isolated individual as the primary social unit to the detriment of serious
consideration of the public community and its common good (at the local,
national, and international levels); and (c) as a consequence of the first and
second challenge, the goal of excellence in education is superficial, one di-
mensional, fundamentally accepting of a tacit Social Darwinism (the eco-
nomic and political survival of those who win in the economic and political
struggle at the expense of and in disregard of the losers), and separated
from broader and deeper considerations of what constitutes civic and
PREFACE xiii

moral responsibility in a whole society or community of human beings. In

framing a treatment of fundamentals of educational administration, there-
fore, it appears that we have to explore how the school will respond to the
challenge of (a) dealing with meanings that undergird human life in the
21st century; (b) building a concern for and an understanding of the de-
mands of community in public life; and (c) promoting a broad commit-
ment to civic and moral responsibility—in the private and public lives of
young people.
By hindsight, it becomes clearer now that if educational administrators
are going to exercise educational leadership, they have to be grounded in
an articulate and compelling vision of schooling. That vision should illus-
trate where schools should be going and what large purposes they should
be serving. That vision has to be understandable within familiar themes in
the culture of their society—themes that speak to the fundamental values
of that culture, yet also relate to the interface of those values with chal-
lenges and opportunities that the historical context offers.
This book represents an effort to call educational leaders, whether
teachers or administrators, to that conversation about the large human is-
sues in schooling. Although it does not offer recipes for schedules, budgets,
and faculty meetings, the book attempts to place the leading of schools
within broad historical and cultural frameworks with which to interpret and
respond to the local stories. From within those frameworks, these future
leaders of schools may begin or continue their efforts to develop an educa-
tional platform capable of appealing to and uniting many of the stake-
holders in the schooling enterprise.

OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK

The book is organized into two parts. The first part introduces a perspective
on the core work of administrative leadership in schools and goes on to de-
velop three crucial and interdependent themes around which administra-
tors may build a compelling vision of what schools need to become. Those
interdependent themes comprise the work of leading schools: cultivating
meaning through the dynamic of teaching and learning; cultivating com-
munity as an everyday work of the entire school; and cultivating a commit-
ment to responsibility within the entire institutional life of the school. The
treatment of these themes is initially situated in the national conversation
taking place among scholars in the field of educational administration con-
cerning the core knowledge base that university preparation programs
should emphasize as they seek to engage prospective school administrators
in a compelling view of their leadership of schools. Besides the present con-
text of leaders in the field of educational administration seeking to refocus
xiv PREFACE

the core work educational leadership, there is a larger historical context to

these themes that involves the struggles of late modernity to correct or bal-
ance the naivete of early modernity. Because schools largely enact many of
the naive understandings of early modernity, the articulation and cultiva-
tion of a vision of schooling for late modernity needs to take up the neces-
sary transitions from these naive understandings toward a more reflexive
and critical synthesis of a mature modern worldview. Part One of the book,
then, attempts a generous understanding of these three themes within
their historical context in order to suggest a fresh and reasonably argued vi-
sion for schooling.
Part Two of the book attempts to place the working out of these themes
within the organizational and institutional life of the school. The three
themes that characterize the core work of schooling should penetrate all
layers of the school organization. Thus, the organization of the school as a
learning community requires policies and programs and operational strate-
gies that are consistent with and support the learnings implied in the three
themes. In turn, those learnings suggest broad teaching and learning pro-
tocols expressed in the design of specific courses or subject matter curric-
ula by grade level, the design of the scope and sequence of whole curricular
programs for a cluster of grades, and the design of institutional resources
and procedures. The design work of administration is related to the devel-
opment of internal accountability and an enabling culture of efficacy. The
work of administrative leadership is enacted through organic management:
the continuous shaping and reshaping of the organization to support the
core work of the school—learning.
Part Two concludes with a consideration of administration as autobiog-
raphy. The work of school administrators there takes on a personal mean-
ing and challenge, suggesting the heroic dimensions of the work, but also
acknowledging the unavoidable limitations every human challenge im-
poses.
At the end of each chapter, I suggest a variety of site-based, action re-
search activities. The material in each chapter presents a way to look at and
think about what is going on in schools. The suggested activities are meant
to develop an understanding of these frameworks and ideas as they are ex-
pressed by students, teachers, and parents or as they are exemplified in the
practices and structures of the readers’ school. I expect that the action re-
search of these assignments will teach much more than the textual material
of each chapter. To only read the chapter and not engage in probing that
material in the workplace would be to miss the major learnings of the
course. The book is intended to frame the learning that participants can
achieve after reading the chapter—through the activities suggested for
their own workplace and in the sharing of findings and ideas with the oth-
ers taking the course or unit.
PREFACE xv

A central tenet of this book is that administrative leadership is intellec-

tual work. That is, administrators need to know what they are doing to un-
derstand the relationship between the work of the school and the chal-
lenges facing contemporary society. This book attempts to develop an
understanding of historical, philosophical, and sociological frameworks
that enable educators to interpret what the school is promoting and not
promoting. I believe that the work of administrative leaders needs to be
grounded in these understandings. To grasp what is implied in these histor-
ical, philosophical, and sociological frameworks is hard work. It requires fo-
cused reading; reflective, probing conversations with peers; and a willing-
ness to challenge long-held personal assumptions. The purpose of this
work is not to turn participants into professors, but to enable them to bring
a large view of what should be happening in schools to their work. More
than one study of schools in the recent past has concluded that they are
mindless institutions. That conclusion does not say much about the admin-
istrators in those schools. Presently, there is a groundswell for school re-
newal. That renewal requires, beyond an understanding of the dynamics of
change, a leadership of ideas.
Another central tenet of the book is that students are the producers of
knowledge, not the teacher or the textbook. What participants take away
from this book and the course in which it is used are the knowledge and
understanding they collectively produce through active engagement with
the text and through learning activities suggested by the text and the
teacher. The book is intended to get participants to ask themselves chal-
lenging questions and to stimulate them to construct practical and work-
able responses to the questions. Differences of opinion and different
conclusions and solutions are to be expected in a class on school adminis-
tration. No one person—not even the professor—has the perfect answer
or, indeed, even understands the question fully. Every class discussion and
class project needs the participation of everyone because each person has
something to offer. We need the perspectives of others to enrich our own
learning. The full participation of everyone in the class will teach us the
most important lesson of all about educational administration—that fun-
damentally it is about our collective cultivation of meaning, community,
and moral responsibility.

REFERENCES

Bates, R. (1984). Toward a critical practice of educational administration. In T. J. Sergiovanni

& J. B. Corbally (Eds.), Leadership and organizational culture: New perspectives on administrative
theory and practice (pp. 260–274). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Beck, L. G., & Murphy, J. (1993). Understanding the principalship: Metaphorical themes,
1920s–1990. New York: Teachers College Press.
xvi PREFACE

Blumburg, A. (1984). The craft of school administration and some other rambling thoughts.
Educational Administration Quarterly, 20(4), 24–40.
Carr, W., & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming critical: Education, knowledge, and action research. Lon-
don: Falmer.
Elmore, R. (2000). Building a new structure for school leadership. Washington, DC: The Albert
Shanker Institute.
Foster, W. (1986). Paradigms and promises: New approaches to educational administration. Buffalo,
NY: Prometheus.
Greenfield, T. B. (1991). Re-forming and re-valuing educational administration: Whence cometh the
Phoenix? A paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Chicago.
Marty, M. (1997). The one and the many: America’s struggle for the common good. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
 Part I

ELEMENTS OF THE
LEADER’S VISION
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all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading
experience and effortlessly download high-
quality materials in just a few simple steps.
Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that
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best prices!
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