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 COOLANT FLOW
INSTABILITIES IN
POWER EQUIPMENT

Vladimir B. Khabensky
Vladimir A. Gerliga
 COOLANT FLOW
INSTABILITIES IN
POWER EQUIPMENT
 COOLANT FLOW
INSTABILITIES IN
POWER EQUIPMENT

Vladimir B. Khabensky
Vladimir A. Gerliga
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20121105

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-6705-4 (eBook - PDF)

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Contents

Foreword..................................................................................................................ix
Introduction.............................................................................................................xi
Nomenclature.........................................................................................................xv

1. Two-Phase Flow Oscillatory Thermal-Hydraulic Instability................1

1.1 Classification of Types of Thermal-Hydraulic Instability and
Typical Thermal and Hydrodynamic Boundary Conditions..........1
1.2 Two-Phase Flow Instability at Low Exit Qualities............................5
1.2.1 Effect of the Individual Upflow Section Height................. 12
1.2.1.1 Throttling Effect...................................................... 15
1.2.1.2 Effect of Exit Quality Increase............................... 17
1.2.1.3 Effect of Coolant Flow Rate and Pressure
in the System............................................................ 18
1.2.1.4 Effect of Heat Flux Surface Density...................... 18
1.2.1.5 Effect of Power Distribution along the Height.....19
1.2.1.6 Effect of Coolant Flashing in Individual
Riser Section............................................................. 20
1.2.1.7 Effect of Nonidentical Parallel Channels............. 21
1.3 Two-Phase Flow Oscillatory Instability at High Exit
Qualities (Density-Wave Instability).................................................22
1.3.1 Instability Mechanism........................................................... 24
1.3.2 Effect of Pressure.................................................................... 32
1.3.3 Effect of Local and Distributed Hydraulic Resistance...... 32
1.3.4 Effect of Nonheated Inlet and Exit Sections....................... 35
1.3.5 Effect of Inlet Coolant Subcooling........................................ 36
1.3.6 Effect of Specific Heat Flux, Mass Velocity,
Channel Length, and Equivalent Diameter........................ 38
1.3.7 Effect of Kind and Height Distribution of Heating........... 40
1.3.8 Effect of Channel Orientation...............................................42
1.4 Simplifying Assumptions Underlying Mathematical
Model and Their Effect on Accuracy of Thermal-Hydraulic
Stability Boundary Prediction............................................................43

2. Oscillatory Stability Boundary in Hydrodynamic Interaction

of Parallel Channels and Requirements to Simulate Unstable
Processes on Test Facilities.......................................................................... 51
2.1 Qualitative Effect of Hydrodynamic Interaction of Parallel
Channels on Oscillatory Stability Boundary................................... 51
2.1.1 Use of Compressible Volumes............................................... 52
2.1.2 Use of Bypass........................................................................... 55

v
vi Contents

2.1.3 Use of a System of Two Parallel Heated Channels............. 57

2.1.4 Use of Two Hydraulically Identical Parallel
Channels with Nonheated Bypass....................................... 60
2.1.5 Use of Test Facilities with Multichannel Systems.............. 61
2.2 Simulation of Thermal-Hydraulic Instability in Complex
Systems.................................................................................................. 62

3. Simplified Correlations for Determining the Two-Phase Flow

Thermal-Hydraulic Oscillatory Stability Boundary.............................. 73
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 73
3.2 The CKTI Method................................................................................ 74
3.3 The Saha-Zuber Method..................................................................... 76
3.4 The Method of the Institute for Physics and Energetics (IPE)....... 82
3.5 Determination of Oscillatory Stability Boundary at
Supercritical Pressures........................................................................ 89
3.5.1 The CKTI Method................................................................... 94
3.5.2 The Saha-Zuber Method........................................................ 96

4. Some Notes on the Oscillatory Flow Stability Boundary..................... 99

4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 99
4.2 Experimental Determination of the Stability Boundary.............. 100
4.3 Experimental Determination of Thermal-Hydraulic Stability
Boundaries of a Flow Using Operating Parameter Noise.............108
4.4 The First Approximation Stability Investigation........................... 115
4.5 Stability Investigations Based on Direct Numerical Solution
of the Unsteady System of Nonlinear Equations.......................... 122
4.5.1 Construction of the Discrete Analog of
the Initial System of Differential Equations...................... 131
4.6 Conclusion........................................................................................... 144

5. Static Instability........................................................................................... 145

5.1 Basic Definitions................................................................................. 145
5.2 Ambiguity of Hydraulic Curve due to Appearance
of a Boiling Section at the Heated Channel Exit........................... 153
5.2.1 Effect of Local Hydraulic Resistance................................. 155
5.2.2 Pressure Effect....................................................................... 157
5.2.3 Effect of Channel Inlet Coolant Subcooling..................... 157
5.2.4 Effect of Heat Flux Density, Channel Length,
and Equivalent Diameter..................................................... 158
5.2.5 Effect of Heating Distribution and Kind........................... 160
5.2.6 Effect of the Pressure Drop Gravity Component and
Steam Slip Coefficient.......................................................... 160
5.3 Hydraulic Characteristic Ambiguity in the Presence
of a Superheating Section................................................................. 161
5.3.1 Specifics of the Ambiguity Region Formation................. 161
Contents vii

5.3.2 Effect of the Kind of Heating.............................................. 163

5.3.3 Influence of Parallel-Channel Operation and Means
of Controlling Parameters................................................... 172
5.3.4 The Ballast Zone.................................................................... 177
5.4 Hydraulic Characteristic Ambiguity in Cases of Coolant
Downflow and Upflow–Downflow................................................. 182
5.4.1 Two-Phase Coolant Flow Static Instability....................... 184
5.4.1.1 Effect of the Channel Heated Height................. 186
5.4.1.2 Effect of Channel Equivalent Diameter............. 187
5.4.1.3 Effect of Pressure................................................... 188
5.4.1.4 Effect of Heat Flux Surface Density.................... 188
5.4.1.5 Effect of Heat Flux Nonuniformity along
the Height............................................................... 190
5.4.1.6 Effect of Heating Surfaces’ Arrangement in
Channels with Coolant Upflow–Downflow...... 191
5.4.1.7 Effect of Throttling................................................ 193
5.4.1.8 Effect of Steam Slip............................................... 194
5.4.1.9 Effect of Channel Inlet Coolant Subcooling...... 194
5.4.2 Single-Phase Coolant Flow Static Instability.................... 201
5.5 Pressure Drop Oscillations............................................................... 211
5.6 Some Other Mechanisms Inducing Static Instability................... 226

6. Thermal-Acoustic Oscillations in Heated Channels........................... 229

6.1 Thermal-Acoustic Oscillations at Subcritical Pressures............... 229
6.1.1 Oscillations’ Development Pattern and Initiation
Mechanism............................................................................ 229
6.1.2 Effect of Flow Parameters on Oscillation
Characteristics....................................................................... 239
6.2 TAOs at Supercritical Pressures....................................................... 251
6.2.1 Oscillations’ Development Pattern:
A Concept of Oscillations’ Initiation Mechanism............ 251
6.2.2 Effect of Flow Parameters on Oscillation
Characteristics at Supercritical Pressures......................... 257
6.2.3 Effect of Channel Design Specifics on Heat Removal
and TAOs’ Characteristics................................................... 260
6.2.4 Effect of Dissolved Gas on TAOs’ Characteristics........... 266

7. Instability of Condensing Flows.............................................................. 271

7.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 271
7.2 Instability of Condenser Tube and Hotwell System..................... 274
7.3 Interchannel Instability in System of Parallel-Connected
Condensing Tubes.............................................................................. 277
7.4 Water Hammers in Horizontal and Almost Horizontal
Steam and Subcooled Water Tubes.................................................. 288
7.5 Instability of Bubbling Condensers................................................. 289
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viii Contents

8. Some Cases of Flow Instability in Pipelines......................................... 291

8.1 Self-Oscillations in Inlet Line-Pump System................................. 291
8.2 Instability of Condensate Line-Deaerator System.........................305
8.3 Vibration of Pipelines with Two-Phase Adiabatic Flows............. 314
8.3.1 Examples of Vibration of Industrial Pipelines with
Two-Phase Flows................................................................... 314
8.3.2 Vibration of Gas–Liquid Pipelines..................................... 319
8.3.2.1 Pulsations of the Adiabatic Two-Phase Flow
Pressure in Pipelines............................................ 319
8.3.2.2 Transport Delay-Based Instability
Mechanism.......................................................... 326
8.3.2.3 Hysteresis of the Hydraulic Discriminant
in Pipelines............................................................. 329
8.3.2.4 Slug and Plug Regimes of the Two-Phase
Flow in Pipelines................................................... 330
8.3.2.5 Oscillatory Processes in the Two-Phase Flow
in the Externally Controlled Pipelines................. 330
8.4 Two-Phase Flow Instabilities and Bubbling................................... 331

References............................................................................................................ 341
Foreword

The problems of thermal-hydraulic stability are found to occur in almost all

areas of engineering where transfer of heat by moving gas, steam–liquid, and
liquid–metal fluids takes place. This is of particular importance for ­thermal and
nuclear power plants, space technology, chemical and petroleum ­industries,
radio and electronic and computer cooling systems, to mention but a few.
This book represents an attempt to generalize experimental and predictive
results of investigations that dealt with various types of thermal-hydraulic
flow instabilities in components of power equipment of thermal and nuclear
installations reported elsewhere in the world. It also seeks to make the reader
familiar with the state of the art in the field.
The book includes material that, until recently, has not been reflected in
monographs and education literature. Since 1960, over a thousand papers
have been published on flow stability in equipment components in various
branches of engineering. The authors gave up on the idea of a systematic
overview of all of them; rather, they used individual examples illustrating
sufficiently common regularities in flow instability investigations.
Though the range of problems and types of thermal-hydraulic ­instabilities
is rather wide, a general approach has been applied. It largely concerns
qualitative consideration of a phenomenon and determination of the
­
­influence of various factors based on the analysis of the physical m ­ echanism
of a p­ rocess. As far as possible, an attempt was made to combine an
illustrative manner of material presentation with a sufficient degree of
­
­physical ­correctness. We hope that such an approach will be instrumental in
refining the notion of mechanisms and major regularities of the ther-
mal-hydraulic flow instability, and understanding the unity and
simplicity of the reasons determining the loss of stability
systematizing the available data on thermal-hydraulic instability and
master predictive techniques for concrete types of ­instabilities in
real systems
selecting the appropriate method of experimental or predictive investi-
gation and planning the respective investigation
interpreting the results and verifying their extrapolation to full-scale
systems
selecting the optimal ways and means for increasing flow stability of
the newly designed systems
In our opinion, the book will be useful for students, practical engineers,
designers, and researchers involved in designing and operating power
equipment and investigating problems of thermal-hydraulic instability.

ix
Introduction

It is customary to regard flow instability as a periodic or single change of

thermal-hydraulic parameters in channels or circulating loops when a plant
operates under steady-state conditions.
Thermal-hydraulic instability may impair thermal reliability of reactor
core or other power equipment components. It has been shown in ­numerous
publications that a sudden decrease in flow rate can lead to superheating
and burnout in a heated channel. Also, periodic oscillations may cause
­failure of the channel wall or fuel element cladding because of the periodic
­magnetite layer deterioration. Flow rate or pressure fluctuations may lead to
low-­frequency vibrations.
Various types of instabilities of two- and single-phase nonadiabatic
­coolant flows have been intensively investigated in recent decades. First,
these i­nvestigations dealt with hydraulic schemes of steam boilers and
steam generators with forced and natural coolant circulation. With the
advent of nuclear power plants, especially those using boiling water ­reactors
and ­coolant natural circulation, emphasis has been placed on flow s­ tability
in c­irculation loops of these plants. Cases of coolant flow instability at
­supercritical pressure and at the two-phase flow condensation have been
discovered and made the subject of research.
As a result of numerous experiments and predictions, different types of
instabilities with regard to their mechanisms have been revealed. For some
of them, analytical and numerical methods and correlations have been
developed to determine the stability boundary and to establish the time-
dependent behavior of coolant parameters in the unstable region, as well as
the effect of flow and design parameters’ variation on the stability ­boundary.
However, a variety of types of instabilities, sophistication of circulation loops
and designs of reactor core process channels, higher heat fluxes and p ­ ossible
superposition, and interaction between different instabilities frequently
complicate not only quantitative but also qualitative analysis. It should be
noted that the phenomenon in question has not been studied in detail yet.
Higher heat fluxes and new circulation schemes may result in unknown
types of coolant flow instabilities or in a combination of conventional types
of instabilities.
Modern theoretical investigations of coolant flow instabilities employ
­various methods [1–9] based on the study of unsteady-differential or integro-
differential partial equations, together with respective boundary and initial
conditions. With reference to differential equation studies, two directions
are followed.
The first one, aimed at the determination of flow stability boundary and
the effect of various parameters, involves a study of behavior of a complete

xi
xii Introduction

set of problem solutions with no search for exact or approximate solution.

To this end, the direct Lyapunov’s method and frequency response methods
are used. With reference to real plants and vivid presentation of ­information
of the effect of parameters on flow stability, a distributed parameters model
requires substantial simplification and a multiplicity of assumptions.
Though quantitatively satisfactory with regard to determination of flow
­stability regions, the methods require experimental verification. That is why
they are usually used for qualitative determination of the effect of separate
parameters on the stability boundary.
The second direction of investigations, which permits quantifying self-
oscillating regimes more precisely, represents a study of system p ­ arameters’
behavior in the instability region by direct numerical solution of the
­nonlinear dynamic model. Numerous investigations [8–11] showed that, for
a concrete system, this method yields a sufficiently reliable quantification
of the ­coolant flow instability region for low-frequency thermal processes,
if there are adequate constitutive quasistatic correlations for heat transfer
­coefficients, hydraulic resistance, steam quality, etc. The approach is also
­advantageous for investigating the interaction of processes and ­parameters
in the ­instability region. This makes it possible to conduct a numerical
­experiment and “watch” time variation of different distributed parameters,
including those difficult to determine experimentally. The numerical ­solution
of the distributed parameter model helps in establishing specific features
of physical mechanisms and some regularities in the influence of design
and flow parameters on the stability boundary. In some cases, a nomogram
[12] or an algebraic dependence [13] can be developed for an approximate
­determination of the stability boundary.
The orientation toward numerical methods only is not optimal for the flow
stability studies. A more efficient approach supposes the use of analytical
techniques or a nomogram, given in, say, Lokshin, Peterson, and Shvarts
[12], for an approximate evaluation of the instability region and finding ways
of optimal improvement of the system stability. Additionally, experimental
investigations and numerical solution of a distributed parameter model are
required for the quantitative refinement of the flow stability boundary.
These methods are described in sufficient detail in monographs and
papers aimed at mathematically well-equipped researchers and designers.
However, a practicing engineer needs a simple method requiring no ­special
mathematical knowledge and permitting qualitative evaluation of the effect
of design and flow parameters, taken separately or as a whole, on the flow
stability boundary. This would be instrumental in selecting optimal diagram
and design solutions promoting flow stability in the system and compo-
nents. It is exactly the way that was used to apply the minimum of math-
ematics to present the material on flow instability in heat exchange s­ ystems
in nuclear and thermal power plants. Qualitative analysis of the effect of
parameters on the stability boundary is based on detailed c­ onsideration of
the ­physical mechanism of various types of instabilities, taking into account
Introduction xiii

complex interaction of parameters of a concrete heat exchanger. For example,

­throttling of the reactor core channels with natural circulation promotes
flow stability and at the same time decreases the loop flow rate, which in
turn substantially undermines throttling efficiency, etc.
Much attention is given to the analysis of conditions that are the cause of
instability in nuclear reactors and power equipment.
The presented qualitative analysis of flow instability, especially the inte-
grated, comprehensive consideration of the effect of interrelated p ­ arameters
in a circulation loop, is used for specifying requirements to s­ imulation of
thermal-hydraulic flow instability, interpretation of e­ xperimental data, and
validation of the appropriateness of experimental data extrapolation to real
power plants.
Such approach may be useful for designers for the early identification of
the type of instability and selection of the required degree of mathematical
model specification.
As for the flow instability under diabatic conditions, mostly thermal-
hydraulic processes in a channel or loop are taken into account. The effect
of such feedback as neutron kinetics, operation of automatic control ­systems,
various circulation promoters, disturbances due to natural oscillations of
loop components, etc. is not considered here as being dependent on ­specific
features of concrete power plants, while the possible effect of such ­processes
on flow stability is shown in detail in references 1, 3, 5, and 6. Also, no ­analysis
has been made of thermal-hydraulic instability of loop ­ circulation for
­complex geometries because it is sufficiently treated in Mitenkov, Motorov,
and Motorova [5].
It should also be mentioned that the treatment of thermal-hydraulic
­instability covers macroinstability only, as it determines changes of ­coolant
integral parameters in the entire channel or loop. The local thermal-­
hydraulic instability governed by the local thermal free convection, by
Taylor and Helmholtz instability initiated at the interphase boundary, etc., is
not ­analyzed individually, and is mentioned only when its effect on system
macroinstability is considered.
To increase the efficiency of qualitative analysis, a well-justified clas-
sification of known types of thermal-hydraulic instability and typical
boundary conditions is of importance. In this case, classification should be
reasonably general and boundary conditions sufficiently universal. Excessive
­detalization some subtypes of instability is, as a rule, a result of the influ-
ence of individual constructional peculiarities of a hydraulic system, or of
the complex interaction of interrelated parameters of a loop, which lead to a
change in boundary conditions. These factors can be easily ­analyzed within
the framework of a more general classification of instability types and
boundary conditions, while the increased number of instability ­subtypes
considerably complicates qualitative analysis.
Particular attention has been paid to oscillatory (low-frequency and
thermal-acoustic) and static thermal-hydraulic coolant flow instability.
­
xiv Introduction

To this end, the physical mechanism of instability has been considered in

detail, especially its peculiarities at low and high exit qualities. Also, the
effect of change of design and flow parameters on the flow stability b
­ oundary
has been shown.
Wide application of two-phase flows in nuclear and thermal power plant
heat exchangers leads to the appearance of numerous types of instability
caused by different mechanisms. Here, deaerators, separator-superheaters,
bubblers, etc. may be mentioned.
When such types of two-phase flow instabilities are analyzed, their
­physical nature and possibility of occurrence in modern designs of nuclear
and thermal power plants are considered briefly.
Nomenclature

A: Cross-sectional area, m2
A: Amplitude, %
A: Work performed by a bubble during the oscillation cycle
(Equation 6.1)
∂∆Pp ∂ Pc
A: = 0 − 0 , Equation (5.5)
∂G ∂G
A: = ρG/ρsh
a: Acoustic speed, m/s
ap, av: Complex amplitude of the bubble pressure and of the bubble
volume oscillations, respectively
c p: Specific heat under constant pressure, J/(kg·K)
C: Coefficient in Equation (3.5), derived from Figure 3.2
c: Constant in Equation (5.35)
Dh, dh: Hydraulic diameter, m
D: Stability criterion in Equation (3.8)
D: Heated medium flow rate, kg/s (Section 5.3.4)
D, d: Max and min screw diameters, m (Section 8.1)
E: Acoustic energy flux per bubble unit surface
FG: Bubble surface, m2
G: Flow rate, heating medium flow rate (Section 5.3.4), kg/s
Gby: Bypass flow rate, kg/s
g: Gravitational acceleration, m/s
H: Length, height, m
h: Step in a screw pump, m
hm: Mass transfer coefficient in Equation (6.4)
ΔHec, ΔGin: Amplitude of oscillations at the economizer section boundary
and of the inlet flow rate, respectively
i: Enthalpy, J/kg
iLG: Latent evaporation heat, J/kg
ic: Enthalpy at the onset of pseudoboiling under supercritical
pressure (Equation 3.16)
I, T: Heating medium enthalpy and temperature in case of convec-
tive heating, J/kg, °C (Section 5.3.4)
i, t: Heated medium enthalpy and temperature in case of convec-
tive heating, J/kg, °C (Section 5.3.4)
Im [ ]: Complex number imaginary part
j: = −1
K, Π: Stability criteria, formulas (1.18) and (1.29), (3.14) and (3.15),
respectively

xv
xvi Nomenclature

K: = ∆Pin.t 0.5 ρWL2, inlet throttling

K: = Gby/GC, bypass factor
K: =|ΔGc1/ΔGc2|, ratio of flow rate deviations in stable and
­unstable channels, Equation (5.13)
Kp: Correction factor for pressure (Figure 3.1)
KK: Number of the bubble oscillation mode (harmonic) (Section 6.1.1)
M, m: Steam, liquid mass, kg
N: Power, MW
Np: Number of economizer section decomposition parts
n: Relative neutron flux (= n/n0)
n: Number of channels, of pump revolutions
P: Pressure, MPA
ΔP: Pressure drop, MPA
ΔP1, ΔP2: Friction pressure drop in the liquid and in the two-phase
­section, respectively, MPA
Po, Poo: Pressure at the channel inlet and exit, respectively, MPA
ΔPL,t, ΔPG,t: Local resistance pressure drops across the economizer and
­evaporating/superheating sections, respectively (Equation 1.30),
MPA
ΔPp(G): Pump head characteristic, MPA
ΔPf: Friction pressure drop, Equation (7.1), MPA
Peav: Pressure at the beginning of cavitation, MPA
Pcr: Pressure at which the pump head starts decreasing during
cavitation, MPA
Pbr: Pressure at which a sharp head drop occurs, MPa
P 1: Condensate pressure in the line to deaerator, MPA
P2r: Condensate pressure at the deaerator inlet, MPA
P2: Steam pressure at the deaerator condensate inlet, MPA
q: Heat flux density, MW/m2
Q: Heat transferred in convective heating (Section 5.3.4)
Q1, Q2: Fluid volumetric flow rate in the feed and discharge pipelines,
respectively, m3/s (Section 8.1)
Re [ ]: Complex number real component
s: Characteristic equation root
SGΔP: Reciprocal spectral density of noise powers
SGG: Self spectral power density
T: Temperature, °C
ΔTin, ΔTsub: Inlet subcooling, °C (= Ts – Tin)
ΔT, Δt: Minimal temperature difference between the heating and
heated media in the superheating and economizer/­evaporating
sections’ ballast zone, respectively, °C (Section 5.3.4)
Tc : Coolant average temperature in the channel, °C
Tup: Coolant temperature in the upper chamber, °C
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