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 A History
of Christendom
Vol. I

Warren H. Carroll
Copyright© 1985 by Christendom Press.
All rights reserved.
Manufactured in the United States of America.

All inquiries should be addressed to:

Christendom Press, Front Royal, VA 22630.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical
means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in
writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a
review.

Fourth printing, 1993.

L.C. Classification Number: D20.C27
The Founding
of Christendom

Warren H. Carroll

Christendom Press
Front Royal, VA 22630
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This first volume of my history of Christendom was written and published

at Christendom College and owes much to the vibrant Catholic community
established there. I am particularly indebted to Jeffrey Mirus, Director of
Christendom Publications, for his critical reading of the manuscript and for mak­
ing all the arrangements for its publication; to William Marshner, Chairman
of the Theology Department at Christendom College, for his assistance with
questions of the interpretation of Latin and Hebrew passages; and to Robert
Hickson, Chairman of the English and Literature Department at Christendom
College, for his critical reading of the manuscript. I would also like to express
my particular appreciation for diligent assistance in the final preparation of this
book for publication to Walter Janaro, Assistant Director of Christendom Publica­
tions; Mrs. Irene Furtado, who produced the type-set copy; Mrs. Kathleen Sat­
terwhite, who did the layout; and to Katherine O'Brien, Darlene Summers, and
Diana Weyrich who helped proofread it.

WARREN H. CARROLL
 DEDICATED
to my beloved wife ,
ANNE
whose bright example and unceasing prayer
brought to me the grace of faith
and membership in the Church of Christ
 Contents

Introduction 9

Prologue 14

1. A Darkling Plain 21

2. Father in Faith 38

3. Fire on S inai 59

4. The Promised Land 81

5 . The Divided Kingdom 101

6. The Holy C ity 118

7. The Quest and the Chosen 148

8. Two Hopes 175

9. The March Across the World 192

10. The Fortitude of Rome 211

II. Rome Ascendant, the Temple Regained 229

12. Rome and Caesar 249

13. The W inning of the Roman Peace 270

14. The Incarnation of the Lord 287

1 5 . God in Galilee 315

16. "I A m the Resurrection and the Life " 351

17. He C hose Twelve-and Pau l 394

18. The Seed in the Earth 447

19. Blood of the M a rtyrs 490

20. Triumph of the C ross 524

B ibliography 550

Index 575
INTRODUCTION

W hat is Christendom? W hat kind of history can be written of it?

Christendom is the reign of Christ-that is to say , for the Christian, the reign
of God recognized by men . M uch of that reign is invisible, since His kingdom
is not of this world . Much of it is personal , since the primary concern of this
divine Person is with us as human and eternal persons . But some
of it is public and historical . Where men of courage and missionary spirit
recognize Christ as their Lord and proclaim Him, Christendom appears as a
social , cultural and political presence in the world . It grows with that courage
and profession , and above all by the silent impetus of prayer and example . It
fades with timidity , indifference , apostasy , and lack of holiness .
Christendom has faded today , to the edge of invisibility . Here in the United
States , when we founded a college to bear its name , we soon learned that most
people could no longer define , or even pronounce it.
For fifteen centuries Christendom shaped the development of Western
civilization . But it was not always so. In the spring days and nights of the year
30 A . D . in Jerusalem, between the feasts of Passover and Pentecost, all of
Christendom met in one upper room of a nondescript house in an out-of-the­
way street: a small group of men headed by a fisherman, and a few women
from Galilee . Out of that one room streamed a historical force greater than any
other ever known; no more than God H imself is it dead today . These years of
Christendom' s apparent eclipse are perhaps the best time to attempt the telling
of its full h istorical story , from preparation through birth and growth, climax ,
division, and retreat-so as to be more ready for its coming resurrection . The
six volumes proj ected for this history will cover each of those phases in the
history of Christendom : founding (this volume , to 324 A . D . ) ; building
(324-1100); glory (1100-1517); cleaving (1517-1774); revolution against

9
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10 A HISTORY OF CHRI STENDOM

( 1 774- 1 9 1 4 ) ; martyrdom (the twentieth century since 1 9 1 4 ) .

The history of Christendom differs from conventional histories of Chris­
tianity in that the latter concentrate very largely, i f not almost exclusively on
the institutional church or churches, and on clergy men . But clerics are far from
I
being the only Christians; and the church is not, or at least need not be, the
only Christian institution, though it will always be , the most important, and uni­
que . The history of Christendom includes as a major element the lay or tem­
poral order insofar as it is penetrated and influenced by Christianity . The greater
the degree of this penetration or influence, the more signficant is the temporal
history so affected, for the h istorian of Christendom . He will therefore blend
eccles iastical and political history .
One of the greatest tragedies in the history of Christendom has been its divi­
sion into competing churche s . One of the relatively few immediately hopefu l
signs for the orthodox Christian in today ' s secularized world is the decline, at
long last, of the internal bitterness and dissension among believing Christians
as they discover the magnitude of their common ground and common interest
in the face of an apostate civilization . True ecumenism does not mean the aban­
donment of conviction and truth for the sake of a superfic ial, meaningless agree­
ment. It means building solidly on real convictions and truths which are found
to be shared . Full reunion is still far away . But hostility and contention are
recedi� g .
This h istory is written b y a Catholic, from the Catholic perspective, w ith
the conviction that Jesus Christ founded a church and that the visible church
He founded is the Roman Catholic Church which, through its succession of Popes
in particular, has remained, is, and always will be His Church, and through
which He acts in particular ways not available to members of most of the
separated churches, notably in the Holy Eucharist by which He becomes really
present on the altar at Mass, and reserved in the tabernacle. But He has other
sheep who are not of the visible Catholic fold, members of H i s
church through baptism b y water or b y desire . Many non-Catholic Christians
have served Christ well- indeed, better than a great many Catholics have serv­
ed Him . Their services are included in this h istory . Christendom-the idea and
reality of a Christian public order-has been, historically, much more a Catholic
than a Protestant concept and undertaking, but has echoes and reflections among
many of the separated brethren (most notably in the Eastern Orthodox churches) .
No h istory of Christendom as here defined has been published in English
in the twentieth centu ry . Of histories of Christianity and of the Cathol ic Church
there have, of course, been many . Probably the best is that of Henri Daniel­
Rops, translated from the French and published i n many volumes (by Dutton
and, in paperback, by Doubleday I mage Books) i n the U nited S tates from 1 946
to 1 966 . But even Daniel-Rops ' great and firmly orthodox work is not a history
of Christendom, of the Christian public order and of devout Christian laymen
 INTRODUCTION 11

working i n and building that order, nearly s o much a s i t i s a history o f the Church
per se. It is marred by an anti-Hispanic bias which undervalues and m isconceives
the heritage of the more than half of the Catholic Church that speaks S panish
or Portuguese . Despite the profound and encyclopedic knowledge of the author,
it is not properly speaking a work of scholarship, since it neither addresses
scholarly controversies involved in the history recounted , nor cites sources .
The attempt is made in this history to combine vivid narrative in the text
with thorough scholarship in the extensive notes at the end of each chapter. The
maj ority of the c itations in these notes refer to secondary sources-that is, to
the work of modern historians on which the author has drawn . Primary sources­
docum ents contemporary w ith the period under review-are used from time to
time, particularly where there is a strongly controverted point, but comprise
only a m inority of the citations . This is simply because of the scope of this work,
which renders it impossible for any one man in a reasonable period of time to
master all or most of the applicable primary sources adequately ; even if this
were possible, it would not be a reasonable expenditure of time and effort, since
so many painstaking and conscientious scholars have already investigated the
primary sources w ith the utmost care and reported thoroughly on them . The
overriding need is not for more monographs on original sources , but for syn­
thesis from the Christian point of view , in a time when this kind of h istory has
v i rtually ceased being written.
However, great care has been taken to cite every source used , even for
statements which m ight reasonably be deemed "common knowledge, " because
of the passions and prej udices which have so often touched the tell ing of the
history covered in these volumes, causing many to doubt or question even well­
established facts. Each source c ited is fully identified when it first appears in
the notes to a particular chapter, and thereafter by the author' s last name and
an abbreviated version of the title (op. cit. is used only within a single note) .
The bibliography at the end of each volum e will serve as a guide to works of
h istory pertaining to Christendom, many of which have been almost complete­
ly forgotten , or never were adequately known.
Two points of possible obj ection call for further comment here: ( 1 ) the issue
of historical obj ectivity ; (2) the slight use made of social , economic, intellec­
tual , and institutional (except ecclesiastical) history .
Regarding obj ectivity , every professional h istorian knows that the most dif­
ficult single task in h istorical research is pruning down and weeding out the
original indigestible mass of raw material i nto the basis for a coherent presenta­
tion of the subj ect being researched and written about . Every historian must
use principles of selection of what material is important and relevant to his general
and particular task . Every historian (though not all are fully aware of this) has
a world-view which has much to do w ith his choice of what is significant and
relevant. For the historian to suppress evidence bearing directly on his own sub-
12 A HISTORY O F CHRI STENDOM

j ect and conclusions is a grave derel iction ; but for hi m to screen out irrelevant
information is a duty , an essential part of his craft. In all honesty , every historian
owes to his reader an identification and a statement of his own world-view .
Above all it is necessary to see the fundamental error in the widely held
idea that the history of religion is " objective" when written by those who do
not believe in the rel igion they are writing about (or, often , in any religion) ,
but biased when written by a religious man . The rejection of some or all religious
truth is every bit as much an intellectual position as is the acceptance of rel igious
truth . Both the bel iever and the non-bel iever have a point of v iew . Both are
equally tempted to bias ; either may be objective by overcoming that tempta­
tion . Obj ectivity does not derive from having no point of view . History cannot
be w ritten without one. Objectivity does require honesty and respect for truth
alway s .
This writer's own beliefs w i l l b e made very clear throughout these volumes .
Facts and positions contrary to the conclusions stated herein will be noted to
the ful lest extent that a reasonable utilization of space permits . Again , due to
the scope of the work and of the historical controversies concerning its subject
matter, nothing l ike a definitive presentation of the contrary views can be
attempted-after all , the primary purpose of these volumes is to present a Chris­
tian view , not today ' s much more common non-Christian view , of five thou­
sand years of history . But the contrary arguments and especially the awkward
facts, not appearing to fit the conclusions h ere st ated , deserve to be, and wil l
b e , presented and dealt w ith explicitly .
Regarding social , pol itical , and non-ecclesiastical institutional h istory , the
writer would emphasize that as a C hristian his interest is in persons. Persons
in their earthly l ives are indubitably very much affected by social and institu­
tional structures and by economic conditions . But the person is ultimately ,
metaphysically independent o f them. H e is not their creature, but God' s creature .
It is surely no mere coincidence that the decline in political and ecclesiastical
history and good biography in sc holarly h istorical writing and the rise of social,
economic, and temporal institutional history has paralleled so closely in time
the erosion of Christianity in our civil ization . Christians do not see men as
primarily shaped or dominated by extrinsic and nameless forces, structures , and
trends . They see the drama of human life as primarily composed of personal
thought and action, above all by the working of the will. This is highl ighted
in political history but plays l ittle part in social , economic , and institutional
history .
Regarding intellectual history , the achievements of the mind are clearly a
product of free will and therefore relevant to the concerns of this h istory , and
where possible they will be introduced in these volumes . However, since the
primary emphasis is on Christendom as a manifestation of the Faith in the public
order, the more subtle and long-lasting effects of great intellectual achievements
 I NTRODUCTION /3

are difficult to fit into the organizational structure of this history , wh ich co ve rs
relatively short chronological periods in sequence, and therefore only a ve ry
lim ited coverage of intellectual history is attempted . An intellectual h istory of
Christendom , conceived on a different plan from these volumes , would be a
mo st worthy and needed task for a properly equ ipped scholar to undertake .
The writer firmly holds the perhaps unfashionable bel ief that any good history
s hould be a good story. Man ' s past is ful l of events more dramatic than any
ever put on stage . The most dramatic of these events pertain directly to the
supreme drama which is the action of C h rist in the world, in preparing for His
coming, in com ing , and in living in His Churc h . There is no law of nature or
of scholarship which says that a scholarly and rel iable history must be dull , and
no reason at all why it should be .
Since Christians today have almost ceased to write their own history as Chris­
tians , there is an im mense void in historical scholars hip. These volumes offer
a synthes is of all history from the Christian viewpoint, · a nd should often sug­
gest promis ing avenues for further research and writing from that viewpoint .
There is a crying need for ris ing young historical scholars pos sess ing the gift
of faith in Christ to answer the call for the reconstruction of Christian
historiography . There are a hundred lifetimes' work to do . God willing, that
work shall soon begin, and these volumes play some part in launching it.
Warren H. Carroll , Ph . D .
Christendom Col lege
F ront Royal . V i rginia
United States of America
PROLOGUE
''IN THE BEGINNING''

In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth . The
earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon
the face of the deep; and the Spirit of God was moving over
the face of the waters . And God said , " Let there be l ight " ;
and there was light. -Genesis I: 1 -41

God is; and God is love . 2 Only God , of all beings , must necessarily be.
It is only God Wh ose Name can be, and must be , I AM.3
Because God is, He can c reate-give being to matter and energy in all their
configurations throughout the length and breadth and height and depth and past
and present and future of the Cosmos , to the last galaxy , and above all to the
souls of men . Because God is love, He did create the material universe and
its spiritual inhabitants . None of the tangible obj ects in the u niverse and none
of its spiritual inhabitants necessarily i s . None can explain or permanently
preserve their being by their own efforts . All are contingent. The hardest moun­
tain, the brightest star, the best man or woman unaided by Divinity must in­
evitably lose being in the visible universe as it moves down the corridors of time .
Time began w ith creation; h istory , in its broadest sense, began with man ' s
appearance in the universe God had c reated . F o r the Christian, history has a
center-point, a focus of ineffable radiance which alone gives it meaning , direc­
tion , and pu rpose. That focus is the person of One who was w ith God , is God ,
has acted in the universe and most especially in our world from the beginning ,
will act until the end , and will bring that end when He comes to j udge the world .

14
 PROLOGU E 15

In the beginning was the Word , and the Word was with God , and the
Word was God . He was in the beginning with God ; all things were made
through him, and without him was not anything made that was made . In
him was life , and the life was the l ight of men . The light shines in the
darkness, and the darkness has not overcome i t. 4

That was He Who one day was to be born a human babe in Bethlehem-He
Who lit the spark of all the galaxies , Who shot tim e ' s arrow upon its course,
the master of all the l ight-years who was nailed to a cross in Jerusalem , at the
Place of the Skull .
This happened upon the earth ; and therefore in the order of ultimates , the
·
order of Heaven , it makes our earth the center of the universe .
The earth came out of the starry heavens, and out of the earth came man .
On both points the Book of Genesis and today ' s scientific theories agree . On
the time span and the mechanism involved they seem to disagree , though they
may be harmonized much m ore than is generally believed . But in the last analysis,
.

questions of geologic time and organic evolution , though fascinating , are not
of p rimary importance to the Christia n . He needs to keep in mind that debate
on these questions should not be foreclosed on either side, that it is poss ible
for an orthodox Christian to accept the theory of m an ' s bodily evolution-as
a theory-so long as he unwaveringly affirm s the direct creation of man ' s im ­
mortal sou l by God and the descent of all men from an original pair whose sin
of pride and disobed ience , and its consequences, has indelibly stained the whole
h i story of the human race . These two de fide doctrines no science can disprove .
No fossil or rock stratum can ever tel l us that the Garden of Eden and its in­
habitants did not exist. Since all men are members of the same biological species
which interbreeds w ith no other species , 5 no scientist can ever p rove that we
did not all descend from an original p a i r .
O n t h e vexed question of the evolution o f life a n d o f man, the sure gu ide
for the Roman Catholic must be the only m agister ial p ronouncement ever made
on the subj ect, the encycl ical Humnni Generis by Pope Pius XII in 1 950, which
states:

The teaching authority of the Church does not forbid that , in conformi­
ty with the present state of human sciences and sacred theology , research
and discussions on the part of men experienced in both fields take place
with regard to the doctrine of evolution insofar as it inquires into the origin
of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter- for
Catholic faith obl iges us to hold that souls are immed iately created by God .
. . . Some , however, highly transgress this liberty of d iscussion when they
act as if the origin of the hu man body from pre-ex isting and living matter
were already completely certain and proved by facts which have been
discovered up to now, and by reasoning on those facts , and as if there were
noth ing in the sources of D ivine revelation which demands the greatest
moderation and caution in this question. When , however, there is a ques-
]6 A HISTORY OF CHRISTENDOM

tion of another conjectural opinion , namely polygenism, children of the

Church by no means enjoy such l iberty . For the faithful cannot embrace
that opinion which maintains either that after Adam there existed on this
earth true men who did not take their origin through natural generation from
him as the fi rst parent of all, or that Adam represents a certa in number
of fi rst parents . 6

On the other side of the evolution debate , no C h ristian can doubt that God
had the power to create all men new , both body and sou l , regardless of what
had gone before; and once again, no scientist can disprove that or prove the
contrary . There is considerable evidence of creatures living on earth from several
hundred thousand to several million years ago whose bodies were intermed iate
in form between ape and man ; but none of their remains show clear ind ications
of spi ritual awareness or imagination, the sure signs of humanity . They did not
bury their dead; no religious objects or art have been found associated with them.
A creature may be bodily intermediate between animal and man, but he cannot
be spi ritually intermediate . You either are a spiritual being or you are not. 7
Thomas Aquinas teaches that body and soul cannot be permanently sundered
or conceived as essentially separate , whatever the nature of the miracle involv­
ed in the soul ' s preservation du ring the period between bodily death and the
resurrection of the body ; 8 consequently , the idea of the soul of a man inserted
into the body of an animal is a philosophical monstrosity . The being man was
a whole new creation , whatever might have been his physical resemblances and
antecedents in the preced ing animal world-a new creation with a mind able
to comprehend the Cosmos and to worship and glory i n his Maker, as at the
dawn of time " when all the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of
God shouted for j oy . ' '9
These unique gifts we sti ll possess, though we may not apprec iate or use
them ; but the first man and the first woman had more . Their bodies were glorified
by their uncorrupted sou l s . Souls are immortal by nature . Since soul and body
were joined , their bodies would naturally have taken on the immortality of their
souls, and in the beginning they did so. Any other condition would have been
a contradiction , a clashing discord in the symphony of the Cosmo s .
Y e t that contradiction , that disharmony is the reality w i t h which w e l ive-a
real ity whose stark horror has been dulled by familiarity and made bearable
by countless habitual evasions: the horror of an immortal soul bound in a mor­
tal and corruptible body . The first tangible proof of the existence of true man
on earth is to be found in the fact that the earliest true men buried their dead .
To all animals death is a part of nature- sometimes to be mourned, as a mother
beast will mourn her dead young , but never frightening or uncanny , because
for an animal death is the end . But to all men-except those of our modern age
most insulated from real ity by sophisticated rationalizations-death is a ghastly
mystery , a sign of fear. A nd so prehistoric man tied up his dead with thongs
 PROLOG U E 17

so that they could not walk about to haunt him, and surrounded them with goat
horns to keep them in thei r graves by magic , yet left food to nourish and pro­
pitiate them in case neither bonds nor spell s should work . 1 0 We think it natural
that most men, especially primitive men , should be afraid of ghosts . But what
in the world is natural about it? Nothing could be more helpless and harmless
than a dead man , as any animal could tell us if it could think or speak ; but it
would be unl ikely to convince u s .
W e fear the dead because in t h e depths of o u r being we feel that they ought
not to be dead and might not stay dead ; because they rem ind us of what we
would much rather forget: That some day we will be as they ; and because we
cannot understand why this should be , and how it will be . Yet strange and ugly
as it is, death no less than l i fe is of the essence of humanity as we have known
humanity . Death wars with the l i fe in our bodies , and in time death always con­
quers . The victory of our " last enemy " is assured . No merely humanistic and
materialistic philosophy can truly come to grips w ith the fact of death , because
that fact makes dust and ashes out of the heart of their value systems, as it will
make dust and ashes out of the body of every humanist and every material ist .
Modern agnostic existential ists have at least faced the fact of death , but find
in it only a blank wall of negation; the best they can tel l us is to march into
obl iv ion with courage. But what good is courage to a corpse?
There is just one adequate explanation in all the history of human thought
for the terrify ing and unnatural presence of inev itable death and bodily dissolu­
tion in human l i fe . Materialism ignores the problem ; agnostic existentialism is
defeated by it; the doctrine of reincarnation merely multipl ies it. Only one real
answer has ever been given, in only one place : 1 1 in the third chapter of the Book
of Genesis, which tells us that the first man and the first woman w ished to sam­
ple the knowledge of evil, 12 believing th is would make them like God , and that
they did sample it in v iolation of God ' s express commandment and in disregard
of His explicit warning that death would result from its violation . 1 3
I n that act and i n that moment they lost their innocence and frustrated the
purpose for which they had been given being : to know , to love , and to serve
God . For nothing evil may behold Him W ho is all good in H i s full glory , nor
can one stained by sin worship Him with a pure heart. So the first man and
the first woman learned when God moved through the Garden on that most terri­
ble afternoon in the h istory of the world, and they tried to hide themselves from
Him in their shame, only to find that there is no place to hide from God . He
called them forth , l istened to thei r sordid attempts to shift and evade personal
responsibility for what they had done, 1 4 and passed the sentence which j u stice
demands even from the A uthor of Justice: 1 5

Cu rsed i s th e ground because of you;

in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your l ife ;
thorns and thistles it shall bring forth to you ;
18 A HISTORY O F C HRISTENDOM

and you shall eat of the plants of the field .

In the sweat of your face
you shall eat bread
till you return to the ground,
for out of it you were taken ;
you are dust,
and to dust you shall return .'6

F rom that day man was an exile upon the face of the earth ; but in time ,
while still an exile, he was to become a pilgrim.

NOTES

1 All quotations from .the Old Testament are taken from the Revised Standard Version
of the B ible ( 1 952), as printed , with the additional books in the Catholic and Eastern
Orthodox B ibles, in 1he New Oxford Annotated Bible , 2d ed . (New York, 1 977) .
2 John 4 : 1 6 .
3 Exodus 3 : 1 4 . See Chapter Three, below , for fu rther discussion o f the background
and significance of God ' s self-revelation to Moses reported in thi s passage.
4 John I: 1 -5 . All quotations from the New Testament are .t aken from the second ed i­
tion of the Revised Standard Version of the B ible, New Testament translation ( 1 97 1 ) ,
as printed i n 1h e New Oxford Annotated Bible . (There i s not yet a second edition of
the Old Testa ment translation in the Revi sed Standard Version . ) There is no difference
between the Protestant and Catholic canons of the New Testament.
s Everett C. Olson , 1he Evolution of Life ( New York , 1 965) , pp. 83-84 . The distinc­
tion between our own species, Homo sapiens, and the species regarded by evolutionists
as our immediate predecessor, Homo erectus, is clearly marked-especially in the shape
of the head and the size of the brain-and there is no evidence of any interbreeding .
On th is point see W . E . Le Gros C lark , 1he Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution , 3 rd
ed. (Chicago , 1 97 8 ) , pp . 83-89 , 1 1 8- 1 23 ; M arcellin Boule and Henri Vallois, Fossil
Men , rev . ed .l36- 1 38 , 146; and William Howells, Mankind in the Making , 2nd ed. (New
York , 1 967) , pp. 209-2 1 1 , 2 1 5 .
6 Pope Pius XII, Humani Generis ( 1 950) . Philip G . Fothergill, Evolution and Chris­
tians ( London , 1 96 1 ) , investigates the biological evidence and presents the case for evolu­
tion as a Cathol ic, strictly and expl icitly under the gu idance of the passages in Humani
Generis perta ining to this question , indicating how closely the Genesis account and the
scientific ev idence in favor of evolution can be harmonized . For a vigorous and intelligent
presentation of the opposing, anti-evolutionary v iewpoint from an equally orthodox Chris­
tian, not a Cathol ic , see Duane T. Gish , Evolution-the Fossils Say No! (San D iego ,
CA. , 1 973 ) . Those i nterested in pursuing the intricacies of this debate would do well
to compa re Fothergill and Gish point by point . The numerous standard scientific works
on orga n ic evolution are of limited value to the Christian concerned about this issue because
a l most a l l of them either ignore or ridicule the kind of questions which orthodox Chris­
tians natura l ly a nd necessa rily ask about the theory of evolution.
7 Most a nthropolog ists define ma n a s a tool-using a ni ma l . The crass ma teria l ism of
th is definition bears witness to an enormous phi losoph ica l poverty ; nor does it even fit
the ev idence of the fossils a ny longer, since there is now good rea son to bel ieve that
the primitiveAustralopithecus , with a bra i n ha rdly la rger tha n a gorilla ' s , used chipped
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