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 APA
College
Dictionary
Psydfology
 APA
College
Dictionary
Psycliology

American Psychological Association

Washington, DC
Copyright © 2009 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.
Except as pennitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, including,
but not limited to, the process of scanning and digitization, or stored in a database or
retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

PubUshed by
American Psychological Association
750 First Street, NE
Washington, DC 20002
www.apa.org

To order
APA Order Department
P.O. Box 92984
Washington, DC 20090-2984
Tel: (800) 374-2721; Direct: (202) 336-5510
Fax: (202) 336-5502; TDD/TTY: (202) 336-6123
Online: www.apa.org/books/
E-mail: [email protected]

In the U.K., Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, copies may be ordered from
American Psychological Association
3 Henrietta Street
Covent Garden, London
WC2E 8LU England

Typeset in Aylesbury, England, by Market House Books, Ltd.

Printer: Edwards Brothers, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Cover Designer: Naylor Design, Washington, DC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

APA college dictionary of psychology. — 1st ed.

p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4338-0433-5
ISBN-10: 1-4338-0433-6
1. Psychology—Dictionaries. I. American Psychological Association. II. Title: College
dictionary of psychology. III. Title: A.P.A. college dictionary of psychology.

BF31.A68 2009
150.3—dc22
2008048226

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record is available from the British Library.

Printed in the United States of America

First Edition

The citation for this publication is APA coUege dictionary ofpsychology. (2009).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
 Contents

Preface vii
Editorial Staff ix
Quick Guide to Format xi
APA College Dictionary of Psychology 1

Appendix
Significant Historical Figures in 465
Psychology
 Preface

This dictionary is the third in a family of reference works published by

the American Psychological Association (APA). The parent reference, the
APA Dictionary of Psychology—the culmination of some ten years of
research and lexicographic activity—was released in 2006, and has since
won wide critical endorsement and recognition from both the publishing
and reference library communities.
An abridgment of this parent work, the APA Concise Dictionary of
Psychology, was released two years later. Whereas the original dictionary
offered a deeply layered approach to the lexicon of the field in its
approximately 25,000 entries, the Concise, through an editorial process
of reduction and synthesis, offered an equally informative exploration
of the fundamental vocabulary, but with broader general appeal, in
approximately 10,000 entries. The lexicographical journey undertaken
to create both of these works is described in detail for the interested
user in their prefaces.
The latest offspring in this reference family, the APA College Dictionary
ofPsychology, naturally carries the same genetic material as its predecessors
and bears witness to an ongoing evolutionary process. APA offers it as
an even more highly concentrated, easily portable, and economical
altemative for the student of psychology—whether he or she is at the
advanced placement level in high school, a college undergraduate
enrolled in Intro Psych, or an undergraduate considering or making
psychology his or her major field of study.
How did we further focus and refine the lexicon so that it answers the
needs of this specific population? A brief review of our editorial method
and process may be useful here:
In order to delimit an appropriately representative universe of terms
for inclusion in a college dictionary, APA reference staff researched
psychology texts in use at some three dozen institutions of higher
learning in the United States. These schools fell into three broad
categories: major public and private universities, small liberal arts
colleges, and community colleges. It was important not only to look
across these general categories, but also to include predominantly
institutions with psychology departments of high repute and with strong
programs in the arts and sciences generally. From this spectrum, we
sought to pinpoint primary introductory undergraduate texts in general,
social, developmental, abnormal, and cognitive psychology, as well as
neuroscience and basic methodology and statistics.
Glossaries and indexes from the most popular texts (i.e., those used at
several institutions) were then assessed against the corpus of 25,000
entries in the parent dictionary and the 10,000 entries in Concise, in
order to ascertain overlap (and gaps). Reference staff decided to include
the 5,000 most common terms (i.e., those appearing in multiple
sources), bearing in mind (a) the abbreviated physical format, (b) our
desire to bring out an affordable college dictionary expediently, and (c)
coverage at this level easily surpasses that of any similarly focused
resource currently available (in a couple instances by almost 3,000
entries). Staff also made use of the APA 2.7-million-records PsycINFO
database of citations to the scholarly literature in order to review
which of the entries that appeared in only a single source should be
considered for inclusion.
As with the method used to create the APA Concise Dictionary, our
staff of lexicographers then reviewed the text of each selected entry
(typically working from the version used in Concise), in some cases
retaining it and in some cases further cutting or rewording text. Each
consideration of a definition has brought opportunities for updating
and general textual improvement, and this enhancement is reflected in
numerous entries throughout the APA College Dictionary. Three
excellent examples are placebo control group, social age, and two-factor
theory ofwork motivation.
Another important gain achieved through vetting our corpus of
headwords (i.e., entry terms) with the actual language used in the
primary college texts was an accretion of some 200 terms that have not
previously appeared in our parent or abridged dictionaries. They range
from the relatively broad (e.g., absolutism, diversity, normal) to the highly
specific (e.g., acetaldehyde, perseverance effect, skewness), and their
definitions were developed through a careful process of research and
successive review by multiple individuals. In addition to appearing in
this college context, most of these newly developed entries will be
subsumed into second editions of the full and concise versions of the
dictionary as well.
We hope that the editorial undertaking described above has resulted
in a useful tool for students navigating the sometimes murky waters of
the psychology lexicon. Beyond this, we recognize once more the
participation of the full editorial board of the APA Dictionary of
Psychology, whose earlier efforts we gratefully acknowledge as the
foundation upon which this college dictionary rests.
We invite the student users of the APA College Dictionary of Psychology
to participate in the ongoing task of defining the field. Reference staff
will appreciate hearing from you with regard to this resource as an
entirety or with regard to a particular entry or family of entries. How
does the text match your study needs? In what ways can it be
improved? Please contact us by post in care of APA Books, 750 First
Street, NE, Washington, DC 20002, Attention: Reference; or by e-mail
at [email protected].

Gary R. VandenBos, PhD

APA Publisher
 Editorial Staff

Editor i n Chief
Gary R. VandenBos, PhD
Senior Editors (American Psychological Association)
Theodore J. Baroody
Julia Frank-McNeil
Patricia D. Knowles
Marion Osmun
Senior Editors (Market House Books, Ltd.)
Alan Isaacs
Jonathan Law
Elizabeth Martin
Assistant Editor (American Psychological Association)
Marian E. Haggard
Editorial Board
Mark Appelbaum, PhD
Elizabeth D. Capaldi, PhD
Debra L. Dunivin, PhD
Alan E. Kazdin, PhD
Joseph D. Matarazzo, PhD
Susan H. McDaniel, PhD
Susan K. Nolen-Hoeksema, PhD
Suparna Rajaram, PhD

Editorial C o n t r i b u t o r s
John G. Albinson, PhD C. Alan Boneau, PhD
Mark Appelbaum, PhD Marc N. Branch, PhD
Bernard J. Baars, PhD Laura S. Brown, PhD
Andrew S. Baum, PhD Joseph J. Campos, PhD
Roy F. Baumeister, PhD Daniel Cervone, PhD
Daniel S. Beasley, PhD Stanley H. Cohen, PhD
Leonard Berkowitz, PhD Deborah J. Coon, PhD
David F. Bjorklund, PhD James C. Coyne, PhD
Editorial Contributors (continued)
Robert L. Dipboye, PhD Barbara G. Melamed, PhD
Maria L. Dittrich, PhD Theodore Millon, PhD, DSc
Gail Donaldson, PhD Bryan P. Myers, PhD
Deborah K. Elliott-DeSorbo, Peter E. Nathan, PhD
PhD Raymond S. Nickerson, PhD
David G. Elmes, PhD Andrea Farkas Patenaude,
Gary W. Evans, PhD PhD
Leandre R. Fabrigar, PhD Christopher Peterson, PhD
Erica L. Fener, PhD Robert W. Proctor, PhD
Donelson R. Forsyth, PhD Stacey M. Rosenfeld, PhD
Robert G. Frank, PhD Robert Rosenthal, PhD
Donald K. Freedheim, PhD Mark R. Rosenzweig, PhD
Charles J. Golden, PhD Preeti Saigal, PhD
Maria A. Gomez, DVM, PhD Morgan T. Sammons, PhD
Kenji Hakuta, PhD Julie H. Sandell, PhD
Dennis C Harper, PhD Thomas R. Scott, PhD
Curtis P. Haugtvedt, PhD Anderson D. Smith, PhD
Morton A. Heller, PhD Tonya L. Smith-Jackson, PhD
John W. Jacobson, PhD Charles T. Snowdon, PhD
Robert J. Kastenbaum, PhD Michael A. Stadler, PhD
John F. Kihlstrom, PhD Robert J. Sternberg, PhD
Bruce E. Kline, PsyD Cheryl V. Tan, PhD
Debra L. Kosch, PhD W. Scott Terry, PhD
Michael J. Lambert, PhD J. Kevin Thompson, PhD
Joseph LoPiccolo, PhD Mieke H. Verfaellie, PhD
George F. Luger, PhD Neal F. Viemeister, PhD
Raelynn Maloney, PhD Kathleen D. Vohs, PhD
A. David Mangelsdorff, PhD Kim-Phuong L. Vu, PhD
Colin Martindale, PhD Leighton C. Whitaker, PhD
Kenneth I. Maton, PhD Richard N. Williams, PhD
Randi E. McCabe, PhD, Abraham W. Wolf, PhD
CPsych Charles E. Wright, PhD
Katharine McGovern, PhD Josef Zihl, PhD

Editorial Consultants
Robert F. Bornstein, PhD
Claude Conyers
George J. Demakis, PhD
Douglas E. McNeil
Ingrid R. Olson, PhD
Thomas F. Shipley, PhD
Margaret Sullivan
 Quick Guide to Format

Headword jcausationlHthe empirical relation Part-of-speech label

between two events, states, or vari-
ables such that one (the cause) is
held or known to bring about the
other (the effect). See also CAUSAL-
I T Y . ! ^ Derived word
c a u t i o n s shift a CHOICE SHIFT
in which an individual making a
decision as part of a group adopts
a more cautious approach than
the same individual would have
adopted had he or she made the
decision alone. Studies suggest that
such shifts are rarer than the op-
Hidden entry posite|riskyshlft.|See also GROUP
POLARIZATION.

c h r o n o l o g i c a l ageKCAJlthe Abbreviation
amount of time elapsed since an in-
dividual's birth, typically expressed
in terms of months and years.
client n. a person receiving treat-
ment or services, especially in the
context of counseling or social
work.|See PATIENT-CLIENT ISSUE.) Cross-reference
Plural form crisis n. (p;.|crises)[ria situation Sense niunber
(e.g., a traumatic change) that pro-
duces significant cognitive or
emotional stress in those involved
Sense number in it. [23 a tuming point for better or
worse in the course of an iUness.
C r o n b a c h ' s a l p h a an index of
Cross-reference [INTERNAL CONSISTENCY) reliability,
that is, the degree to which a set
of items that comprise a measure-
ment instrument tap a single,
unidimensional construct. Also
Altemative name calledlalpha coefficient.HfLee J,
Cronbach (1916-2001), U.S. psy-
chologist] | Etymology
 APA
College
Dictionary
PsycKology
 Aa
A-B design the simplest SINGLE- of achievement or performance ob-
CASE DESIGN, in which the DE- tained, reporting the absolute or
PENDENT VARIABLE is measured relative ability of the individual
throughout the pretreatment or being evaluated, is called an ability
baseline period (the A phase) and level.
then again following the treatment
period (the B phase). Numerous vari- a b l a t i o n n. the removal or destruc-
ations of this basic design exist, such tion of part of a biological tissue or
as the A-B-A design, A-B-A-B design, structure by a surgical procedure or
A-B-B-A design, and A-B-BC-B de- a toxic substance, usually for treat-
sign. The latter involves two ment or to study its function. When
treatment periods (the B phase the entire tissue or structure is
and the C phase) and is intended to excised, the process is called extir-
assess the effect of B both in combi- pation.
nation with C and apart from C. a b n o r m a l adj. relating to any devi-
ation from what is considered
abducens nerve the sixth CRANIAL typical, usual, or healthy, particu-
NERVE, carrying motor fibers for larly if the deviation is considered
control of the lateral rectus muscle
of the eye, which rotates the eyeball harmful or maladaptive. In statistics,
outward. Also called a b d u c e n t for example, abnormal scores are
nerve. those that are outside the usual or
expected range. The term, however,
a b e r r a t i o n n. 1. any deviation, is most often applied to behavior
particularly a significant or undesir- that differs from a culturally ac-
able one, from the normal or cepted norm, especially when
typical. See also MENTAL ABERRA- indicative of a mental disorder.
TION. 2. in vision, the failure of —abnormality n. -—abnormally
light rays to converge at the same adv.
point, due either to distortion by a
lens (spherical aberration) or to the a b n o r m a l psychology the branch
formation of colored fringes by a of psychology devoted to the study,
lens (chromatic aberration). prevention, assessment, and treat-
ment of maladaptive behavior. See
ability n. existing competence or also PSYCHOPATHOLOGY.
skill to perform a specific physical or
mental act. Although ability may be a b o r t i o n n. the expulsion from the
either innate or developed through uterus of an embryo or fetus before
experience, it is distinct from capac- it is able to survive independently.
ity to acquire competence (see An abortion may be either sponta-
neous, in which case it occurs
APTITUDE).
naturally and is also called a miscar-
ability test any norm-referenced riage, or induced, in which case it is
standardized test designed to mea- produced deliberately by artificial
sure existing competence to perform means such as drugs or surgery and
a physical or mental act. The index done for therapeutic reasons or as
above-average effect

an elective decision. The practice is and accurately on 50% of trials. Al-

controversial and may involve abor- though the name suggests a fixed
tion counseling, the provision of level at which stimuli effectively
guidance, advice, information, and elicit sensations, the absolute
support on issues concerning termi- threshold fluctuates according to
nation of pregnancy and the alterations in receptors and envi-
alternatives of adoption or raising ronmental conditions. Also called
the child. absolute limen (AL).
above-average effect the ten- absolute value the numerical
dency of a person to hold overly value of a figure disregarding its al-
favorable views of his or her intellec- gebraic sign. For example, the
tual and social abilities. The above- absolute value of -1 is 1.
average effect appears to be com-
mon and consistent across a variety absolutism n. the philosophical
of judgment domains and occurs be- position that there are absolute ethi-
cause people fail to take into cal, aesthetic, or epistemological
account other peoples' abilities and values. Phenomena are believed to
instead rely on their own abilities have a fixed reality; thus, what is re-
when they evaluate themselves rela- garded as true in one circumstance
tive to others. Compare BELOW- will be regarded as true in all others
AVERAGE EFFECT. as well. For example, a particular ac-
tion will always be deemed immoral
a b r e a c t i o n n. the therapeutic pro- regardless of its outcome or any
cess of bringing forgotten or other individual or subjective con-
inhibited material (i.e., experiences, sideration. Such a position involves
memories) from the unconscious a rejection (in whole or in part) of
into consciousness, with concurrent RELATIVISM.
emotional release and discharge of
tension and anxiety. See also CA- abstinence n. the act of refraining
THARSIS. from the use of something, particu-
larly alcohol or drugs, or from
abscissa n. the horizontal coordi- participation in sexual oi other ac-
nate in a graph or data plot; that is, tivity. In most instances, abstinence
the A;-axis. See also ORDINATE. from drugs or alcohol is the primary
absence seizure a type of GENER- goal of substance abuse treatment.
ALIZED SEIZURE, formerly called See also SUBSTANCE WITHDRAWAL.
petit rnal seizure, in which the indi- —abstinent adj.
vidual abruptly ceases activity and a b s t r a c t i o n n. 1. the formation of
cannot afterward remember the general ideas or concepts by extract-
event. The absences usually last ing similarities from particular
from 5 to 15 s, during which the in- instances. The precise cognitive pro-
dividual is unresponsive and cesses by which this occurs remain a
motionless, staring blankly. Seizures subject of investigation. 2. such a
of this type typically begin between concept, especially a wholly intangi-
ages 4 and 12 and rarely persist into ble one, such as "goodness" or
adulthood. "truth." —abstract vb.
absolute refractory period see abuse n. 1. interactions in which
REFRACTORY PERIOD.
one person behaves in a cruel, vio-
absolute t h r e s h o l d the lowest or lent, demeaning, or invasive manner
weakest level of stimulation (e.g., toward another person or an animal.
the slightest, most indistinct sound) The term most commonly implies
that can be detected consistently physical mistreatment but also en-
 acetaldehyde

compasses sexual and psychological memory or other cognitive pro-

(emotional) mistreatment. 2. see cesses, as in ATTITUDE ACCESSIBILITY
SUBSTANCE ABUSE. —abuser n. for example, —accessibility n.
acalculia n. loss of the ability to accessory nerve the 11th CRANIAL
perform simple arithmetic opera- NERVE, sometimes so named because
tions that results from brain injury one of its functions is that of serving
or disease, usually to the PARIETAL as an accessory to the 10th cranial
LOBE. It is an acquired condition, nerve (the VAGUS NERVE). It
whereas DYSCALCULIA is develop- innervates the stemomastoid and
mental. trapezius muscles in the neck.
acceleration n. 1. an increase in a c c o m m o d a t i o n n. 1. adjustment
speed of movement or rate of or modification. For example, re-
change. In psychology, the focus is garding individuals with disabilities
on the range of forces sustained by it refers to REASONABLE ACCOMMO-
the human body when it is in a DATIONS made to meet their needs,
moving vehicle, such as an auto- whereas in PIAGETIAN THEORY it re-
mobile or aircraft, and the resultant fers to the adjustment of mental
physical, physiological, and psy- SCHEMAS according to information
chological consequences (e.g., acquired through experience. 2. the
disturbances of heart rhythm and process by which the focus of the
blood pressure, disorientation and eye is changed to allow near or dis-
confusion, and loss of conscious- tant objects to form sharp images on
ness). Compare DECELERATION. the retina. Accommodation is
2. in mathematics and statistics, achieved mainly by contraction or
the rate of change in the SLOPE of relaxation of the CILIARY MUSCLES
a function. but also involves adjustments in the
CONVERGENCE of the eyes and the
accent n. phonetic features of an size of the pupils, —accommodate
individual's speech that are associ- vb.
ated with geographical region or
social class. The standard version of a c c u l t u r a t i o n n. the processes by
a language is usually considered by which groups or individuals inte-
native speakers to be unaccented. grate the social and cultural values,
Compare DIALECT. ideas, beliefs, and behavioral pat-
terns of their culture of origin with
acceptance region in SIGNIFI- those of a different culture. Psy-
CANCE TESTING, the range of values chological acculturation is an
for a test statistic that leads to accep- individual's attitudinal and behav-
tance of the null hypothesis over ioral adjustment to another culture,
the alternative hypothesis. Compare which typically varies with regard
CRITICAL REGION. to degree and type. Compare DE-
CULTURATION; ENCULTURATION.
accessible adj. 1. in social psychol- —acculturate vb.
ogy and psychotherapy, receptive or
responsive to personal interaction acetaldehyde n. a toxic and vola-
and other extemal stimuli. A client tile initial product of alcohol
in psychotherapy is thought to be (ethanol) metabolism that is respon-
accessible if he or she responds to sible for the variety of unpleasant
the therapist in a way that facilitates effects associated with a hangover,
the development of rapport and, ul- including nausea, vomiting, and
timately, fosters the examination of headache. It is produced when
cognitive, emotional, and behav- alcohol is broken down by a
ioral issues. 2. retrievable through liver enzyme called alcohol de-
acetylcholine

hydrogenase and is itself further current level of skill or knowledge in

broken down by another liver en- a given subject. Often the distinc-
zyme (acetaldehyde dehydrogenase) tion is made that achievement tests
into acetate and, ultimately, into emphasize ability acquired through
carbon dioxide and water. Acet- formal learning or training, whereas
aldehyde is widely studied to APTITUDE TESTS (usually in the form
determine its relationship to and of intelligence tests) emphasize in-
influence upon the development nate potential.
and progression of alcoholism. See
also DISULFIRAM. a c h r o m a t i c adj. without hue; col-
orless. Achromatic stimuli are black,
acetylcholine (ACh) n. a major, white, or shades of gray.
predominantly excitatory but also
inhibitory, neurotransmitter in the a c h r o m a t i s m n. total color blind-
central nervous system, where it ness marked by the inability to
plays an important role in memory perceive any color whatsoever: Ev-
formation and learning; and in the erything is seen in different shades
peripheral nervous system, where it of gray. It is a congenital condition
mediates skeletal, cardiac, and stemming from a lack of RETINAL
smooth muscle contraction. CONES. See also DICHROMATISM;
MONOCHROMATISM; TRICHROMA-
acetylcholine receptor (AChR) TISM.
any of certain protein molecules
in cell membranes in the central acoustic adj. associated with
and peripheral nervous systems that sound. The word is usually used to
are stimulated by acetylcholine or modify technical terms (e.g., ACOUS-
acetylcholine-like substances. There TIC REFLEX). Acoustical is used as a
are two main types: MUSCARINIC RE- modifier in all other contexts (e.g.,
CEPTORS and NICOTINIC RECEPTORS. Acoustical Society of America).
acetylcholinesterase (AChE) n. acoustic reflex contraction of the
see CHOLINESTERASE. middle ear muscles (the tensor
tympani and stapedius muscle) elic-
achievement n. 1. the attainment ited by intense sounds. This reflex
of some goal, or the goal attained. restricts movement of the OSSICLES,
See also NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT. thus reducing the sound energy
2. acquired knowledge (especially transmitted to the inner ear and par-
in a particular subject area such as tially protecting it from damage.
biology), proficiency, or skill. The
term is most often used in this sense acoustic store a component of
to mean academic achievement. short-term memory that retains au-
ditory information based on how
achievement m o t i v a t i o n 1. the items sound. Forgetting occurs
desire to perform well and be suc- when words or letters in acoustic
cessful. In this sense, the term often store sound alike. Compare
is used synonymously with NEED ARTICULATORY STORE.
FOR ACHIEVEMENT. 2. the desire to
overcome obstacles and master diffi- acquiescent response set the ten-
cult challenges. High scorers in dency of a respondent to agree with
achievement motivation are likely statements of opinion regardless of
to set higher standards and work their content. This often reduces the
with greater perseverance. validity of interviews, question-
naires, and other self-reports.
achievement test any norm-
referenced standardized test in- a c q u i r e d i m m u n e deficiency
tended to measure an individual's s y n d r o m e see AIDS.
 activation-synthesis hypothesis

acquisition n. the attainment by along a cell during the transmission

an individual of new behavior, in- of a nerve impulse or the contrac-
formation, or skills or the process by tion of a muscle. It is marked by a
which this occurs. Although often rapid, transient DEPOLARIZATION of
used interchangeably with LEARN- the cell's plasma membrane, from a
ING, acquisition tends to be defined RESTING POTENTIAL of about -70 mV
somewhat more concretely as the (inside negative) to about +30 mV
period during which progressive, (inside positive), and back again,
measurable increases in response after a slight HYPERPOLARIZATION,
strength are seen, —acquire vb. to the resting potential.
ACTH abbreviation for adreno- action research socially useful
corticotropic hormone. See and theoretically meaningful re-
CORTICOTROPIN. search developed and carried out in
a c t i n n. see MUSCLE FIBER.
response to a social issue or prob-
lem, results of which are used to
a c t i n g o u t 1. the uncontrolled and improve the situation.
inappropriate behavioral expression
of denied emotions that serves to re- action-specific energy in classical
lieve tension associated with these ethology, a hypothetical supply of
emotions or to communicate them motivational energy within an or-
in a disguised, or indirect, way to ganism that is associated with
others. Such behaviors may include specific unlearned behavioral re-
arguing, fighting, stealing, threaten- sponses known as FIXED ACTION
ing, or throwing tantrums. 2. in PATTERNS. Each response has its
psychoanalytic theory, reenactment own energy supply, which builds up
of past events as an expression of until the organism encounters the
unconscious emotional conflicts, appropriate RELEASER.
feelings, or desires—often sexual or activation n. 1. in many theories
aggressive—with no attempt to un- of memory, an attribute of the rep-
derstand the origin or meaning of resentational units (such as NODES
these behaviors. or LOGOGENS) that varies from
a c t i o n n. 1. a self-initiated se- weaker to stronger, with more
quence of movements, usually with strongly activated representations
respect to some goal. It may consist competing to control processing.
of an integrated set of component 2. the process of alerting an organ
behaviors as opposed to a single re- or body system for action, particu-
sponse. 2. the occurrence or larly arousal of one organ or system
performance of a process or function by another, —activate vb. —acti-
(e.g., the action of an enzyme). v a t i o n a l adj.
action disorganization syn- activational effect a transient
d r o m e a cognitive deficit resulting hormonal effect that typically causes
from damage to the FRONTAL LOBES a short-term change in behavior or
of the brain and causing individuals physiological activity in adult ani-
to make errors on multistepped but mals. For example, increased
familiar or routine tasks. Types of er- testosterone in male songbirds in
rors include omissions or additions spring leads to increased aggression
of steps, disordered sequencing of in territory defense and increased
steps, and object substitutions or courtship behavior. Compare ORGA-
misuse. NIZATIONAL EFFECT.
a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l the change in activation-synthesis hypothesis
electric potential that propagates a hypothesis that explains dreams as
active e u t h a n a s i a

a product of cortical interpretation proposing that old age is a lively,

of random activation rising from the creative experience characterized by
lower brain structures, including the maintaining existing social roles,
PONS. activities, and relationships or re-
active e u t h a n a s i a direct action placing any lost ones with new
performed to terminate the life of a ones. Compare DISENGAGEMENT
THEORY.
person (or animal) who is suffering
greatly and is considered to have no actor-observer effect in ATTRIBU-
chance for recovery. Administering a TION THEORY, the tendency for
lethal injection is the most common individuals acting in a situation to
method of active euthanasia today. attribute the causes of their behavior
This practice is distinguished from to external or situational factors,
PASSIVE EUTHANASIA, in which treat- such as social pressure, but for ob-
ments are withheld but no direct servers to attribute the same
action to terminate the life is taken. behavior to intemal or dispositional
See also ASSISTED DEATH. factors, such as personality.
active listening a psychothera- a c t u a l i z a t i o n n. the process of
peutic technique in which the mobilizing one's potentialities and
therapist listens to a client closely realizing them in concrete form. Ac-
and attentively, asking questions as cording to U.S. psychologist Carl
needed, in order to fully understand Rogers (1902-1987), all humans
the content of the message and the have an innate actualizing tendency
depth of the client's emotion. The to grow and actualize the self fully.
therapist typically restates what has See also SELF-ACTUALIZATION, —ac-
been said to ensure accurate under- tualize vb.
standing.
a c t u a r i a l adj. statistical, as op-
activities of daily living (ADLs) posed to clinical. The use of data
activities essential to an individual's about prior instances, in order to es-
personal care, such as getting into timate the likelihood or risk of a
and out of bed and chairs, dressing, particular outcome, is sometimes
eating, toileting and bathing, and cited as an alternative to clinical di-
grooming. A person's ability to per- agnoses, which are open to human
form ADLs is often used as a error.
measure of functional capabilities
during the course of a disease or a c u i t y n. sharpness of perception.
following an injury. See also INSTRU- Whereas visual acuity is sharpness of
MENTAL ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING. vision and auditory acuity sharpness
of hearing, sensory acuity is the pre-
activity t h e o r y 1. a school of cision with which any sensory
thought, developed primarily by So- stimulation is perceived.
viet psychologists, that focuses on
activity in general—rather than the a c u p u n c t u r e n. a form of COMPLE-
distinct concepts of behavior or MENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE
mental states—as the primary unit MEDICINE in which fine needles are
of analysis. The theory emphasizes a inserted into the body at specific
hierarchical structure of activity, ob- points to relieve pain, induce anes-
ject-orientedness, internalization thesia (acupuncture anesthesia), or
and externalization, mediation (by treat disease. It is based on the con-
tools, language, and other cultural cept in traditional Chinese medicine
artifacts or instruments), and con- that "meridians," or pathways, con-
tinuous development. Also called duct life-force energy known as chi
activity psychology. 2. a theory between places on the skin and the
 additive t a s k

body's organ systems, —acupunc- a standard against which new stim-

t u r i s t n. uli are evaluated. For example, a
person who first lifts a 40 lb weight
a c u t e adj. 1. denoting conditions or would then likely judge a 20 lb
symptoms of sudden onset, short weight as light, whereas if that per-
duration, and often great intensity. son first lifted a 4 lb weight he or
Compare CHRONIC. 2. sharp, keen, she would then likely judge the 20
or very sensitive (e.g., acute hear- lb weight as heavy. Although it orig-
ing). inated in studies of sensory
a c u t e stress disorder a disorder perception, adaptation-level theory
representing the immediate psycho- has since been applied in other
logical aftermath of exposure to a fields, such as aesthetics and atti-
traumatic stressor. Symptoms are tude change.
the same as those of POST-
ADC abbreviation for AIDS DEMEN-
TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER but do
TIA COMPLEX.
not last longer than 4 weeks. This
disorder also includes elements of a d d i c t i o n n. a state of psychologi-
dissociation, such as DEPERSONAL- cal or physical dependence (or both)
IZATION and DEREALIZATION. on the use of alcohol or other drugs.
The equivalent term SUBSTANCE DE-
a d a p t a t i o n n. 1. adjustment of a PENDENCE is preferred to describe
sense organ to the intensity or qual- this state because it refers more ex-
ity of stimulation, resulting in a plicitly to the criteria by which it is
temporary change in sensory or per- diagnosed, which include tolerance,
ceptual experience, as in visual withdrawal, loss of control, and
adaptation when the pupil of the compulsive use of the substance.
eye adjusts to dim or bright light. Chemical substances with signifi-
2. reduced responsiveness in a sen- cant potential for producing
sory receptor or sensory system dependence are called addictive
caused by prolonged or repeated drugs. They include alcohol, am-
stimulation. The adaptation may be phetamines and other central
specific, for example, to the orienta- nervous system (CNS) stimulants,
tion of a particular stimulus. Also CNS depressants, cocaine and crack,
called sensory a d a p t a t i o n . hallucinogens, inhalants, and
3. modification to suit different or opioids, —addictive adj.
changing circumstances. In this
sense, the term often refers to be- additive effect the joint effect of
havior that enables an individual to two or more independent variables
adjust to the environment effec- on a dependent variable equal to the
tively and function optimally in sum of their individual effects: The
various domains, such as coping value of either independent variable
with daily stressors. Compare is unconditional upon the value of
MALADAPTATION. 4. adjustments to the other one. Compare INTERAC-
the demands, restrictions, and TION EFFECT.
mores of society, including the
ability to live and work harmoni- additive t a s k a task or project that
ously with others and to engage in a group can complete by aggregating
satisfying social interactions and re- individual members' efforts or con-
lationships. Also called social tributions (e.g., a five-person group
a d a p t a t i o n , —adapt vb. —adap- pulling together on a rope to move a
t a t i o n a l adj. —adaptive adj. heavy object). Groups usually out-
perform individuals on such tasks,
a d a p t a t i o n level the theoretical but overall group productivity rarely
baseline or zero point, which forms reaches its maximum potential
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