Case Study: Lunar Mobility

• Overview of past lunar rover missions

• Design review of NASA Robotic Prospector (RP)
rover for lunar exploration

© 2020 David L. Akin - All rights reserved

http://spacecraft.ssl.umd.edu
UNIVERSITY OF Slopes and Static Stability
MARYLAND 1
ENAE 788X - Planetary Surface Robotics
Lunar Motorcycle in KC-135 Testing

UNIVERSITY OF Slopes and Static Stability

MARYLAND 8
ENAE 788X - Planetary Surface Robotics
Lunar Motorcycle in Suspension Testing

UNIVERSITY OF Slopes and Static Stability

MARYLAND 9
ENAE 788X - Planetary Surface Robotics
National Aeronautics and Space Administration

RP Rover Tiger Team

Mission Overview

The Lunar Resource Prospector (RP) rover

was an earlier version of what became
Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover
(VIPER), which will be launched to the Moon in
2023. The technical details are not necessarily
representative of the final VIPER design.
 Level-1 Mission Requirements

1.1 RP SHALL LAND AT A LUNAR POLAR REGION TO ENABLE

PROSPECTING FOR VOLATILES
• Full Success Criteria: Land at a polar location that maximizes the combined potential for
obtaining a high volatile (hydrogen) concentration signature and mission duration within
traverse capabilities
• Minimum Success Criteria: Land at a polar location that maximizes the potential for
obtaining a high volatile (hydrogen) concentration signature

1.2 RP SHALL BE CAPABLE OF OBTAINING KNOWLEDGE ABOUT

THE LUNAR SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE VOLATILES AND
MATERIALS
• Full Success Criteria: Take both sub-surface measurements of volatile constituents via
excavation and processing and surface measurements, at multiple locations
• Minimum Success Criteria: Take either sub-surface measurements of volatile constituents
via excavation and processing or surface measurements, at multiple locations

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 Simplified view of RP
Get there…

Launch

Lunar Collect and Process the volatiles…

Transfer

Lunar Capture Use the Drill Subsystem to

Orbit regolith capture samples from up to
Find & Excavate Volatiles… 1[m] depth
Descent &
Landing
Use the Neutron Spec & Heat samples (150-450
Quick Map Near-IR Spec to look for Heat degC) in the OVEN
Checkout surface Hydrogen-rich materials regolith Subsystem

Roll-off Go to the areas with

Determine type and
Lander Enter highest concentrations of
quantity of volatiles in the
permanent volatiles, Permanently Identify
LAVA Subsystem, (H2, He,
shadows Shadowed Regions Volatiles CO, CO2, CH4, H2O, N2,
Quick (PSRs)
NH3, H2S, SO2)
Checkout
Use the Drill Subsystem to
Begin Expose expose material from 1[m]
Show Image and quantify the
Surface regolith depth to examine with me the water created using the
Ops Near-IR Spec water! LAVA Subsystem

21
 Resource Prospector (RP) Overview
Mission:
• Characterize the nature and
distribution of water/volatiles in
lunar polar sub-surface materials
• Demonstrate ISRU processing of
lunar regolith

2 kilometers
100-m radius
landing ellipse

RP Specs:
Project Timeline: Mission Life: 6-14 earth days
✓ FY13: Pre-Phase A: MCR (Pre-Formulation) (extended missions being studied)
✓ FY14: Phase A (Formulation) Rover + Payload Mass: 300 kg
Total system wet mass (on LV): 5000 kg
✓ FY15: Phase A (Demonstration: RP15) Rover Dimensions: 1.4m x 1.4m x 2m
• FY16: Phase A (Risk Reduction) Rover Power (nom): 300W
• FY17: Phase B: SRR/MDR Customer: HEOMD/AES
• FY18: PDR (Implementation) Cost: ~$300M (excl LV)
• FY19: CDR (Critical design) Mission Class: D-Cat3
• FY20: I&T Launch Vehicle: Falcon 9 v1.1
• FY21: RP launch

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 Distributed Operations Test
NASA-ARC Mission
Control room driving RP15
rover @ NASA-JSC

NASA-JSC
Rock Yard from
the rover (left)
stereo camera

3-D Image Viewing of NIRVSS

Camera Images During DOT

NASA-KSC Payload Control room

23
 RP15 In the Dirt
2015-08-15

RP15 in the JSC Rock Yard

“Driver’s Training”

24
 Resource Prospector Org Chart

HEOMD AES Division

(Partner) NASA JPL
J. Crusan (AES)
PAO Chief Exploration
NASA (all) C. Moore (AES)
NASA JSC E. Mahoney (AES) Scientist
W. Watkins (AES) V. Friedensen (AES) B. Bussey (AES)
NASA ARC NASA KSC

NASA GRC NASA MSFC Risk Management Schedule

D. Faied (ARC) D. Faied (ARC)
NASA HQ (Unallocated) WBS 01
Resource Mgmt Procurement
Project Management
F. Lou (ARC) R. Khattab (ARC)
D. Andrews (ARC)
Project Controls PAO
D. Faied (ARC) K. Williams(ARC)

Rover
TTR
WBS 02 WBS 03 WBS 04
Systems Engineering SMA Science/Tech
R. Vaughan (ARC) D. Flansburg (ARC) T. Colaprete (ARC)

Requirements (L1/L2) Science Planning

Liaisons Data Analysis/Archiving
Trade Studies

WBS 05 WBS 6.01 WBS 07 WBS 08 WBS 10

WBS 06.02 WBS 11
Payload Rover Mission Operations Launch Vehicle Integration & Test Education & Public
Spacecraft / Lander
J. Quinn (KSC) W. Bluethmann(JSC) J. Trimble (ARC) J. Hall (KSC) Outreach
WBS 09 S. Miller (KSC)
L. Moore (JSC) T. Fong (ARC) TBD
Ground Systems
J. Trimble (ARC)

25 19
19
 Rover Dimensional Comparison (approx.)

Spirit/Opportunity (2004): Curiosity (1996):

RP/RP15 (2015): • 1.6m x 2.3m x 1.5m • 3.0m x 2.8m x 2.1m
• 1.5m x 1.5m x 2.0m (LxWxH) (LxWxH)
Sojourner (1996):
(LxWxH) • Weighs about 180kg • Weighs about 900kg
• 0.6m x 0.5m x 0.3m
• Weighs about 300kg (LxWxH)
• Weighs about 11kg

26
 RP Rover team makeup and background

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 Resource Prospector Rover Overview

• Design tensions between the lunar poles complexities with Class D

sensibilities
– Lunar complexities
• Uncertain terrain; soft soils, size and frequency of rocks
• Stark lighting conditions
• Short duration
• Operations in permanently shadowed regions; very cold regions
• Severe radiation
• Sun and earth very low to the horizon
– Class D sensibilities
• Robustness under constrained
resources (mass, power, Source: Carrier, et al, Lunar Sourcebook, Chapter 9
schedule, budget, …)
• Single string, with limited
redundancy
• Risk tolerant, but risk informed
• Use heritage designs
when possible

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 Resource Prospector Rover Overview

• Rover is science payload delivery device

• Short duration mission; could be as short as a 6 day mission
– 1 km distance target leading to high paced operations
– Not designing to survive the night
• Design reference mission is currently JAXA designed lander
– Options for NASA designed pallet lander being considered
– While lander does effect rover, it’s not a significant driver
• Rover is operated through direct-to-earth communications using
waypoint commanding
– Expect waypoints to be on the order of 4-6 meters
• Rover is minimally autonomous;
– Short time delay calls for a different operating approach than Mars

29
 RP vs. ISS vs. Mars Rovers

SL S
, M ER

PR
RE SPE
Real-time

)
ER OV

O
SO CT
science
(M S R

UR OR
Non-interactive Interactive

CE
R
Natural terrain
MA

High latency Med latency

(>8 min round-trip) (10-30s round-trip)

Good orbital “Poor” orbital

maps maps
Command Short
sequence mission
Continuous comms
Intermittent comms Extreme lighting
Low-tempo ops High-tempo ops
Low latency
Long mission Med latency RP, ISS
(<2s round-trip)
SPDM
Direct teleop
SSRMS
Structured environment

ISS EVA ROBOTICS

30
 Prior Lunar Rover Missions

Image from Abdrakhimov, Basilevsky, Ivanov, Head, Scott, and Xiao (2015)
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 Lunakhod 2

Image from Abdrakhimov, Basilevsky, Ivanov, Head, Scott, and Xiao (2015)
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 RP vs. Lunakhod

RP (as planned) Lunokhod 2

Lunar location High latitude (polar) Equatorial

Terrain type Highlands Mare (+ some highlands)
Mission duration (surface) 6 days 139 days
Total drive distance 3 km 39 km
Illumination Oblique Overhead
Downlink latency 10-30 sec (via DSN) 3 sec (analog)
Footprint (width x length) 1.5 x 1.5 m 1.6 x 1.7 m
Mass 300 kg 836 kg
Wheels (# x diameter) 4 x 30 (TBD) cm 8 x 51 cm
Steering Explicit (independent 4 wheels) Skid-steered
Solar + battery
Power Solar + battery
(+ Polonium-210 heater)
Drive speed (max) 10 cm/s (prospecting mode) 28 cm/s (low), 55 cm/s (high)

Prospecting, drilling, ISRU Surface imaging, solar x-rays,

Surface activities
processing magnetic fields, penetrometer

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 RP Engineering Prototype
Vision & Comm
Subsurface Sample Collection Camera/Antenna Mast
Drill
Volatile Content/Oxygen Extraction
Oxygen & Volatile Extraction Node (OVEN)
Operation Control
Avionics Heat Rejection
Radiator Volatile Content Evaluation
(Simulated) Lunar Advanced Volatile Analysis
Resource Localization (LAVA)
Neutron Spectrometer
System (NSS)

Power
Solar Array
(Simulated)
Battery

Sample Evaluation
Near Infrared Volatiles
Spectrometer System (NIRVSS)

Mobility
Suspension, steering,
propulsion

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 Rover Baseline Design

• Mobility • Navigation
– 4 wheel explicit steering and propulsion – Stereo camera pair on the mast
– Independent active suspension – Wide angle hazard camera on each side
– Ability to crab; getting out of trouble, sun of the rover for virtual bumper
tracking – Fish-eye-lens under the rover to view
• Structure rover wheels
– Integrated rover and payload systems • Thermal
– Combined billet/sheet metal approach – Five temperature controlled zones
• Power – Cooled by radiator
– Lithium Ion battery (5.5 kw-hr) • Software
– Charged by solar array (350 W) – GSFC Core Flight Executive/Core Flight
Software using Simulink model based
– Active trade about battery voltage
development
• Communications – Ground software providing localization
– Direct-to-earth 600 kbps directional X-
band (400 kbps for roving) • Avionics
– RAD750; options being explored
– 2 kbps omni-directional
– Robonaut heritage motor control

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 FY15: The year of build

12/13 05/14
• During FY15, the RP team built and
performed initial testing of a functional
prototype system
– Approach following flight flow, with
project owned gate reviews
10/14
– Flexibility granted given schedule 12/14
and budgetary constraints
– Integrated functional payload
components
– Capable of 1G operations
• Heavier than flight design
– Look and feel of flight rover 08/15
• Wheels are small for 1G operations 01/15
• Rover was virtually a blank sheet mid-
October 2014

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 FY16: Gravity Offload lessons learned

• RP15 wheels were able to drive up • Drilling was stable at worst test case:
15º slopes, but with >50% slip. 20º slope, wheels straight, mobility off,
• 12 1” grousers worked best at 25º percussive drilling
slopes, similar to RP15 at 15º. • Lower efficiency harmonic gears
• Reducing speed (.03cm/s) on 20º reduce static loads on steering and
slopes reduced slip (~45%<), but suspension during normal driving.
speed made good was lower. Good for low duty cycle operations.
• RP15 wheels could climb a 10cm rock
but not the 15cm rock on 0º and 15º
slopes.
• The 24 1” Grouser wheels could climb
all rocks on all slopes
• JAXA Lander egress was feasible at
worst test cases: 35º pitch; 20º
pitch+15º roll.
• Pallet Lander egress was feasible at
worst test case: 30cm step.

37
 FY16: Thermal vacuum testing

• Objective is engineering testing to

validate design approaches
• Use the RP15 wheel module,
mobility/gimble drivers and single
gimbal axis
• Scheduled to begin March 7
• Use results to drive flight design
iteration JSC Chamber N

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 FY16: Vibration testing

• Objective is engineering testing to gauge

design approaches, investigate lander
mounting options
• RP15 rover with select payload components
(OVEN and drill)
• Mass simulators on items that were mocked
up on RP15 rover
• Use results to drive flight design iteration
• Scheduled to begin March 7 or 21

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 Rover Systems: Enabling Technologies

• All wheel active steering

– Crabbing: Decouples drive vector
and solar pointing to maximize solar
power and science return for short
duration mission; minimizes sun
exposure on radiator.
– Offset axis kinematic coupling with
propulsion: Provides no-scrub
turning; decreases power while
steering; Low soil disturbance from
steering.
– Star (or X) pattern: Stable
configuration for wheels when
drilling.
– One non-direct SWaP downside to
crab steering is hazard avoidance
requires coverage on all 4 sides of
the vehicle.

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 Rover Systems: Enabling Technologies

• Active suspension:
– Independent impedance control:
• Provides even wheel force distribution
to maximize traction
• Allows climbing over rocks with more
stable pose (helpful for DTE comm)
• Potential assist in relieving built-up drill
forces.
– Kinematic control:
• Provides simple stow/deploy capability
• Allows drill height and angle adjustment;
• Allows greater ground clearance in
rockier terrain;
• Allows pitch and roll adjustment for
improved CG on slopes and sun angle.

41
 Rover Systems: Large wheels and Crab Steer

• Larger wheels are not inherent to

skid steer vehicles.
• A simple alteration was
developed from the RP15 model
to demonstrate one option for a
crab vehicle with 0.5m wheels.
• This configuration would have a
+-90º steering range.
• The footprint changed from
~1.5mx1.5m to ~1.6mx1.6m
• We are confident a crab steer
rover with a larger steering angle
(if desired) is possible without
changing the existing footprint.

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 Rover Systems: Ground Pressure

• Comparing Equivalent Ground Pressure for various planetary rovers

– Where EGP(kPa) = Weight/(radius*width*#wheels)/1000 1

Equivalent ground pressure

MET
Apollo Lunakhod
142 LRV2 22 MER1 MSL1 RP15 RP
mass (kg) 75 708 756 177 899 300 300
gravity (m/s/s) 1.622 1.622 1.622 3.711 3.711 1.622 1.622
weight (N) 122 1148 1226 655 3336 487 486.6
# wheels 2 4 8 6 6 4 4
radius (m) 0.20 0.41 0.26 0.12 0.24 0.15 0.25
width (m) 0.10 0.23 0.20 0.16 0.40 0.15 0.20

EGP (kPA) 3.04 3.04 3.01 5.50 5.72 5.24 2.43

EGP (psi) 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.80 0.83 0.76 0.35

• RP15 wheels are in the same grouping as MER and MSL

• The baseline RP wheels have a lower EGP than any previous rovers
• 1, Heverly, et al, “Traverse Performance Characterization for the Mars Science Laboratory Rover”, Journal
of Field Robotics 30(6), 835–846 (2013)
• 2, Kring, “Lunar Mobility Review”, http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/lunar_exploration/briefings/
lunar_mobility_review.pdf

43
 Rover Systems: Solar power without Crabbing

• Using a variety of trajectory distributions the average solar power

collected for a skid steer vehicle (all other systems fixed) is ~30-50%
(100-150W) of a crab steer vehicle.
Sun angle to driving vector distribution % Solar Power
7.0%
Skid
5.2% Even Distr Skid Dual Skid Skid
Crab Normal Lobe Rand Even
Rand Dist
3.5% Rear Panel 100% 60% 46% 31% 32%
Normal Dist Rear and
Sun Centered Side
1.7% Panels
Dual lobe Normal Dist 90% 79% 63% 63%

• 0.0%
Average
0 power
90 draw
180 of270a skid
360steer vehicle is estimated to be ~25-50W

less on average (considering lower static power, higher steering power)

• Options for increasing solar power:
– Larger deployable or gimbal solar panel
– Solar panels on 3 sides of vehicle (should recapture ~50% of lost power)
– Mission Trajectory planning to maximize sun normal driving (limited in real-time
by terrain resolution, can possibly capture another ~10%)

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 Driving Requirements, per RP SRD/ERD, Rev J

• Overall System
– The System should investigate the geotechnical characteristics of cold traps.
– The System shall have a total mass of no greater than 5,000 kg <TBR>.
– The System shall have the capability to function under modes of operations
facilitating safe operations and autonomous fault recovery.
• I&T
– The System/Rover shall provide access to critical components and payloads
during the I&T phase.
• Landing/Egress
– The System/Rover shall provide for a Rover Egress within 6 <TBR> hours of
lunar landing.
– The Rover shall release itself for egress upon command from MOS.

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 Driving Requirements, per RP SRD/ERD, Rev J

• Mobility
– The Rover shall traverse the lunar surface with a minimum range of 1 km (point
to point).
– The Rover shall provide a "Prospecting" traverse speed of 10 cm/sec or less
– The Rover shall operate on the lunar surface on slopes up to 15 degrees
relative to lunar gravity.
– The Rover shall traverse lunar terrain as specified in the RP-SPEC-0001
Environmental Specification Document.
– The Rover shall be remotely driven by a ground based operations team per the
<TBD> Surface Segment Operations document.
– The Rover shall enable Science Payload measurements while traversing within
a region without direct solar illumination.

46
 Driving Requirements, per RP SRD/ERD, Rev J

• Localization/Navigation
– The System/Rover/MOS shall determine its horizontal location within the pre-
launch defined lunar surface operating area to at least +/- 20 meters at any time
from 3 <TBR> hours post egress through decommissioning. (paraphrased
from SRD and ERD)
– The Rover shall provide rover sensor telemetry, images, and payload data of
surrounding lunar environment to MOS for surface segment position estimation
to within +/- 10 meters <TBR> in the predifined landing DEM with respect to
coordinate frame <TBD> post mission.
– The Rover shall, with ground commanded assistance, return from any location
to a previously identified "Area of Interest" to within 5 <TBR> meters.

47
 Driving Requirements, per RP SRD/ERD, Rev J

• Communications
– The System shall utilize Direct-To-Earth/Direct-From-Earth (DTE/DFE)
communications for control and data transfer.
– The Rover shall use a 600kbps <TBD> downlink, 2kbps <TBD> uplink,
directional X-Band <TBD> Direct-To-Earth/Direct-From-Earth (DTE/DFE)
communication link.
– The Rover shall use a 4kbps <TBD> downlink, 2kbps <TBD> uplink, omni
directional X-Band <TBD> omni directional Direct-To-Earth/Direct-From-Earth
(DTE/DFE) communication link.
• Thermal
– The Rover shall operate in a PSR for 6 <TBR> hours
– The System shall maintain operating and survival temperatures throughout all
phases of the mission.
– The Rover shall maintain temperatures for Rover subsystems and components
as documented in the <TBS> Mission MEL/PEL from launch until mission end
on the lunar surface.

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 Driving Requirements, per RP SRD/ERD, Rev J

• Power
– The System power shall be capable of providing a <TBD> W peak power load
for up to <TBD> minutes.
– The Rover shall operate on a PSR for 6 <TBR> hours
– The Rover shall be power self-sufficient during lunar surface operations.
– The Rover shall enable Science Payload measurements while traversing within
a region without direct solar illumination.
• Science Support
– The Rover shall host and support all payloads per the Payload to Rover ICDs.
– The Rover should position for sampling spacing of least 10<TBR> cm to no
more than 100cm horizontally distributed from other sampling locations.
– The Rover shall enable Science Payload measurements while traversing within
a region without direct solar illumination.
– The Rover shall support drill operations on slopes up to 5 degrees relative to
lunar gravity.

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration

RP Rover Tiger Team Review

March 2016
Rover Mobility
Ed Herrera, Colin Creager, Josh Figuered, Anthony Lapp
 Mobility System Outline

• Baseline Design
– Architecture options
– Baseline architecture drivers
– Baseline architecture
• Wheels
• Propulsion
• Steering
• Suspension
– Rover functionality benefits
– Make vs Buy
– Technology Maturation
• Mobility trade/discussion

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 Mobility Architecture Options

6 Wheel/4Wheel Steer with Rocker Bogie Suspension

Skid Steer With
Four Bar Suspension

*Sojourner, Spirit/Opportunity, MSL

All Wheel Steer With Four Bar Active Suspension

*Lunokhod

*Chariot, RP15
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 Mobility Architecture Options

• Skid steer with passive four bar suspension (Lunokhod)

– Pros
• Simplest solution for mobility (1 actuator/wheel for propulsion)
• In comparison to steered designs, wheel size can be maximized for improved flotation and tractive
efficiency in soft soil as steering volume is eliminated
• Capable of lander egress without requiring folding or additional actuators
– Cons
• Steering requires more power than steered wheel designs
• Skid steering imparts increased side loads on wheels in comparison to steered wheel architecture
increasing size/weight of structure
• Unable to track sun during mission operations
• Skid Steer With Active Four Bar Suspension
– Pros vs Passive System
• Increased mobility
– Traverse larger obstacles
– Increased traction
• Load leveling capability
• Greater versatility in lander packaging and egress options
– Cons vs Passive System
• Increased complexity, cost, mass, and power demands

53
 Mobility Architecture

• 6 Wheels/4 Wheel Steer With Rocker Bogie Suspension (Sojourner, Spirit, Opportunity,
MSL)
– Wheels: 6
– Steered Wheels: 4 (Corners)
– Total Mobility Actuators: 10 (4 Steering, 6 Propulsion)
– Pros
• Improved traction and reduced body pitch in comparison to passive four bar suspension
• Passive suspension does not require power
• Suspension enables rover to traverse larger obstacles in comparison to passive 4 bar suspensions
• Corner steer reduces power demands of steering compared to skid steer
– Cons
• More complex than skid steer
• The necessity of 6 wheels results in a reduction of wheel diameter when compared to 4 wheeled rovers
given a fixed volume. Reduction of wheel diameter means reduced draw bar pull.
• Increased weight compared to 4 wheeled designs
• Requires differential mechanism across rover body
• May require foldable components or additional/specialized actuators for stowing and lander egress
• Lack of active suspension and all wheel steer increases risk of getting stuck
• Inability to track sun during mission operations
• No ability to actively control force on individual wheels/cannot actively load level rover chassis

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 Mobility Architecture

• All Wheel Steer With Active Four Bar Suspension (RP)

– Total Mobility Actuators: 12 (4 Steering, 4 Propulsion, 4 Suspension)
– Pros
• Ability to track sun during mission operations (2 DOF sun tracking w/active suspension)
• Active suspension can change angle of vehicle during recharge periods for increased solar
charging performance
• Ability to stow and egress from lander without additional actuators/specialized actuation
• Active suspension maximizes traction with control of force at each wheel
• Active suspension enables rover to traverse larger obstacles
• Active suspension allows for adjustment of drill angle (load leveling) and provides increased
ability to dislodge the drill in the event it gets stuck
• Greater ability to get unstuck from soft soil
• All wheel steer reduces power demands of steering compared to skid steer
– Cons
• More complex than skid steer
• Increases requirements for hazard avoidance
• Complexity vs rocker bogie is design specific based on stowing egress requirements of
rocker bogie rover aboard lander
• Active suspension requires power (when on) and additional mass compared to passive

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 Mobility Architecture Drivers

Drivers for All Wheel drive and steer with Active

Suspension
• Coordinated DOF improve performance in soft
soils
– Valuable in uncertain terrain
• All Wheel Steering
– Sun tracking for max charging
• Polar mission not equatorial
• Low sun angle, long shadows
• Boulder distribution
– Area of Interest Mapping
• Raster/spiral scanning for volatiles
• Active Suspension
– Lander
• Provides most design flexibility and options for stow and
egress
• Stow against hardstops for launch vibe
• Egress extreme ramp or step
– Adds a DOF for sun tracking and DTE comm.
– Traverse timelines
– Uncertainty in terrain
– Passive suspension even when active is off

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 Mobility Baseline Architecture

Wheel Module
• Baseline mobility subsystems
– Wheel (Colin Creager)
Steering
– Propulsion (Josh Figuered) Column
– Steering (Anthony Lapp) Wheel
– Suspension (Ed Herrera)

Suspension

Steering

Propulsion
Max Nominal Min/Stowed

57
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Baseline mobility subsystems

– Wheel (Colin Creager)
– Propulsion (Josh Figuered)
– Steering (Anthony Lapp)
– Suspension (Ed Herrera)

Wheel Module Configurations

Chariot Centaur 2 MRV RP15

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 Mobility Baseline Architecture

Wheels: factors driving design choices

Launch/flight related System level requirements Environmental Specs

requirements • Vehicle weight • Soil strength properties
• Mass • Interactions with the rover • Slope angles
• Volume • Allow for desired steering • Rock size and
and suspension frequency

• High fidelity environmental specs at the poles do not exist yet, though it is
predicted that the terrain could be more difficult to traverse than the lower
latitude regions
– The two most potential challenging terrain features: deep layers of soft soil,
and a high concentration of mid-size rocks
➢Therefore, the wheels are designed to achieve optimal performance
under given mass, volume, and system constraints

59
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

How to optimize traction in soft soil?

Net tractive force =

Net tractive force Thrust - Resistance
Resistance

Thrust

Increasing Thrust Decreasing Resistance

• Maximize wheel-soil contact area • Reduce ground pressure to minimize
➢ Increase diameter and width sinkage
• Maximize horizontal component of ➢ Increase diameter and width
thrust • Reduce wheel/soil entrance angle
➢ Add compliance to tire or increase ➢ Increase diameter
diameter • Use grousers to excavate soil in front of
wheel

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 Mobility Baseline Architecture

Wheel diameter has the greatest impact on traction in soil

Effect of diameter Effect of width
(w = 100mm) (D = 200mm)
Same eff. ground
pressure

Same eff. ground

pressure

Same eff. Ground

pressure

Plots courtesy of Sutoh et. al., “Traveling performance evaluation of planetary rovers on loose soil.” Journal of Field Robotics, Vol. 29,
Issue 4, 2012

• Width can be cut down to save on mass, as long as the sinkage doesn’t become
too great

61
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

Total net tractive force (drawbar pull, DP) of

4 large wheels vs. 6 small wheels

• Constant total wheel mass and effective ground pressure (3kPa / 0.44psi)

180N 180N

Total DP Total DP

45N
30N 300mm
200mm DPwheel
DPwheel

Tire load = 30N Tire load = 45N

DP coefficient = 0.19 (@20% slip) DP coefficient = 0.29 (@20% slip)
Individual DP force = 0.19(30N) = 5.7N Individual DP force = 0.29(30N) = 13.1N
Total DP force = 6(5.7N) = 34.2N Total DP force = 4(13.1N) = 52.4N
Drawbar pull coefficient data courtesy of Sutoh et. al., “Traveling performance evaluation of planetary rovers on loose soil.” Journal of Field
Robotics, Vol. 29, Issue 4, 2012

62
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

Predicted rock size distribution

63
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

Mean free path: effect of diameter on rock traversal

(assuming vehicle width ~ 1m)

RP15 wheel radius LRV wheel radius

New RP wheel radius

(meters)

A 67% increase in diameter = 200-400% increase in mean free path

Mean free path graph courtesy of Matt Deans, ARC

64
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

Grouser height and spacing are based on theory of excavating soil in front of wheel

24

Equation courtesy of K. Skonieczny, S. J. Moreland and D. S. Wettergreen, "A Grouser Spacing Equation for Determining Appropriate Geometry of
Planetary Rover Wheels," in 2012 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, 2012.

65
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

New wheel design

For tire load = 134N (30lbs),

Effective ground pressure = 2.68kPa (0.39psi)

Parameter Design Choice Justification

Outer diameter 50cm (RP15 ~ 30cm) Largest possible based on predicted mass/volume/system constraints
Width 20cm Minimize sinkage (secondary to diameter)
Grouser height 2.5cm Largest possible while structurally sound
Number of grousers 24 Excavate soil in front of wheel (grouser design equation)
Crown radius 30cm Add lateral support while maximizing contact with the soil
Chevron angle of grousers 30deg Allows for constant rolling radius on hard ground

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 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Propulsion:
– Purpose: Provide required torques and
speeds to traverse lunar terrain
– Design Drivers:
• Path planning
– Terrain slopes
– Range of operating speeds
• Wheel
– Diameter
– Rolling resistance
• Volume
– Wheel internal volume
– Steering interface
• Mass
• Power

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 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Propulsion: (Cont...)
– Design approach to drivers:
• Path planning
– Design for rim force adequate to traverse expected slopes with margin for
extreme cases
– Optimize design to be efficient at nominal speed with capability to sprint
• Wheel
– Wheel diameter effects actuator design in respect to speed and torque
– Wheel diameter is proportional to actuator torque requirement
– Wheel diameter is inversely proportional to actuator speed requirement
• Volume/Mass
– Custom integration of components
• Power
– Voltage available from power system effects max motor speed
– Higher voltage provides more options for motor and increased speed
capability for sprinting
– For efficiency and rim force capability the actuator will likely need a gear
ratio greater than 100:1

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 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Propulsion: (Cont...)
– Baseline Propulsion Design:
• In-wheel hub actuator
• Actuator components:
– Brushless, frameless kit motor (rotor/stator)
– Planetary gear set
– Incremental position sensor
– Bearings
– Seals
– Heater?
– Benefits:
• Independent propulsion provides redundancy with
limited loss of functionality
• Independent propulsion provides greatest traction
• Custom housing allows for compact package/
weight reduction
• Planetary gear set is more efficient and robust
than harmonic drive

*RP15 Configuration

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 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Propulsion: current design assumptions:

– 300 kg (660lb) Vehicle, Coefficient of Rolling Resistance = 0.4
– Nominal Operating Point (Design for efficiency)
• 5 Degree slope
• 10 cm/s
• Assume ground force capability equal to 31% of vehicle weight
– Sprint Capability (Design for capability)
• 5 Degree slope
• 25 cm/s
• Assume ground force capability equal to 31% of vehicle weight
– Peak Operating Point (Design for capability)
• 15 Degree slope
• 10 cm/s
• Assume ground force capability equal to 34% of vehicle weight
– Peak Output (Time Limited)
• Assume ground force capability equal to 40% of vehicle weight and coefficient of friction
=1

70
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Steering:
– Purpose: Provide maneuverability and pointing

– Design Drivers:
• Path planning
– Solar tracking independent of trajectory
– Polar mission not equatorial
» Slow moving, low sun angle requires dexterity
– Hazard avoidance
– Boulder distribution
• Drilling operations
– Location accuracy
• Wheel
– Diameter
• Volume
– Multi-turn hard stop
• Mass
• Power

71
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Steering: (Cont...)
– Design approach to drivers:
• Path planning
– Provide a wide steering range to allow for
continuous solar tracking independent of path
– Offset wheel steering axis to allow for advanced
maneuverability
• Wheel
– Maintain ideal wheel diameter and wide range of
steering motion
» Larger wheels may require kinematic limits with
respect to suspension posing
• Volume
– Custom integration of components
• Mass
– Custom integration of components
• Power
– Select an zero backlash drivetrain and optimize
actuator for predominant driving condition
– Ability steering through locked propulsion joint

72
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Steering: (Cont...)
– Baseline Steering Design:
• Actuator components:
– Harmonic Drive
– Parker Brushless Motor
– US Digital Incremental Encoder
– Zettlex Incoder Absolute Position Sensor
– Kaydon Output Bearings
– Locking Heli-coils
– Dust Seals
– Multi-Turn Hardstop
– Internal wire routing
– Benefits:
• Can use coordinated motions to climb out of holes, stuck wheels, high centers, etc.
• Continuous solar tracking independent of path
• Rover can continue to navigate and steer around locked steering joint
• Could assists gimbal with DTE communication
• Track adjustment, inch worming, 3 DOF maneuvers
– Steering geometry when combined with 3DOF kinematic control allows rover to navigate into
and out of places that other machines cannot

73
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

Steering: current design assumptions: (Cont…)

Light Load Case:
Primary force supplied by propulsion
14 RPM max @ 54.5 Nm (482.5 in-lbs) @ 88v-2.3A

Nominal Load Case:

Track propulsion kinematics
5 RPM @ 109.0 Nm (965 in-lbs) @ 38v-5.3A

Peak Load Case:

**Locked wheel steering**
1 RPM @ 369.9 Nm (3273.9 in-lbs) @ 20.3v-16.7A

Launch Load Case: TBD, pending 3/2016 vibe test results

Actuator Requirements (303 kg Rover in 1/6G and 15˚ max slope)

Max Output Speed: 14 RPM (1.47 rad/s)
Max Output Torque: 34.22 Nm (302.8 in-lbs)

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 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Suspension:
– Purpose: Provide required ground clearance,
terrain holding/handling, and ride quality
– Design Drivers:
• Lander
– Stow configuration
– Release/deploy mechanisms
– Duration
– Ramp angle
• Path planning
– Boulder distribution
– Boulder height traverse requirement
– Ground speeds through boulder fields
• Drilling operations
– Leveling on sloped terrain
– Stuck drill recovery assist
• Volume
– Available Lander footprint - Payload
• Mass
• Power

75
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Suspension: (Cont...)
– Design approach to drivers:
• Lander
– Preload wheel module against suspension hardstop
for launch vibe
– Minimize deploy actuations
– Extend functionality of deploy mechanisms to rest of
mission
• Path planning
– Maximize functionality within limits to address
unknowns
• Drilling operations
– Select functionality that benefits Drill
• Volume
– Custom integration of components
• Mass
– Custom integration of components
• Power
– Select components that minimize static load (e.g.
bi-stable brake, back-drivability of actuator)

76
 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Suspension: (Cont...)
– Baseline Suspension Design:
• Series-elastic actuator w/ equal length parallel
4-bar geometry
• Actuator components:
– Brushless, frameless kit motor (rotor/stator)
– Harmonic gear component set
– Incremental position sensor
– Absolute position sensor
– Single axis load cell
– Bearings
– Seals
– Bi-stable brake
– Benefits:
• Kinematic control of all DOF
– Lander stow and egress
– Sun tracking
– Load leveling
– Ground force sensing
– Steering assist
• Maintains passive suspension with system off
• Functions with either all wheel or skid steer
architectures
*RP15 Configuration

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 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Suspension: current design assumptions:

– Ride Height: Scenario A
• Nominal: 20.32 cm (8 in)
• Active vertical range: 0.26 rad/s
– Min: 10.16 cm (4 in)
10 cm/s
– Max: 30.48 cm (12 in)
– Active Response:
• Response to boulder size is vehicle speed
dependent 2.5 cm
• 2.5cm (1in) obstacles at prospecting vehicle
speed, 10cm/s
– Actuator Output Speed: 0.26 rad/s (2.5 rpm)
Scenario B
• 10.2cm (4in) obstacles at reduced vehicle speed,
3cm/s
– Actuator Output Speed: 0.33 rad/s (3.2 rpm) 0.33 rad/s
• Scenario B sets max actuator speed
3 cm/s
• Other actuator speed dependencies
– Control arm length: inversely proportional
– Wheel Diameter: inversely proportional (e.g. 50 vs.
30.5 cm wheel, 0.19 rad/s) 10.2 cm

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 Mobility Baseline Architecture

• Suspension: current design assumptions: (Cont…)

– Nominal Load Case:
• Traverse 5˚ slope
• Rim-force equal to 40% vehicle wheel rolling resistance
• 31% vehicle mass on wheel
• (TBD) Duty Cycle
– Peak Load Case:
• Traverse 15˚ slope
• Rim-force equal to 40% vehicle wheel rolling resistance
• 34% vehicle mass on wheel
• (TBD) Duty Cycle
– Launch Load Case: TBD, pending 3/2016 vibe test results
– Actuator Requirements (303 kg Rover in 1/6G and 15˚ max slope)
• Max Output Speed: 0.33 rad/s (3.2 rpm)
• Output Torque: 116 Nm (85 ft-lbf) Nominal; 194 Nm (143 ft-lbf) Peak

79
 Baseline Rover Functionality Benefits

• Active Suspension • Offset Crab Steering

– Ability to fold – Ability to change vehicle driving angle
• Tuck wheels for transit and deploy for • Point assets
operations – Solar arrays
– Ability to change height
– Sensors
• Stand up from lander
– Point turn
• Avoid obstacles
– Ability to get “out of trouble”
• Lower CG
• Change tracking to a different direction
• Control sensor height
• Change skirt height
• Shift wheel tracking
– Ability to adjust vehicle angle
• Drill placement
• Solar alignment • Independent Propulsion
• Load leveling – 4 motors allows for 2 failures with limited loss
– Ability to package easier of functionality
• Eliminates linkages
• Compact
– Ability to traverse more severe terrain
• Keep 4 wheels on ground
• Rim transition

80
 Mobility Technology Maturation

• Mobility Technology after RP15 at TRL 5

– “The basic technological elements must be integrated with reasonably realistic
supporting elements so that the total applications (component-level, sub-system
level, or system-level) can be tested in a 'simulated' or somewhat realistic
environment.”
– RP15 components successfully integrated with functional testing in field (JSC
rockyard) and reduced gravity environment (ARGOS)
– Plan to raise to TRL 6 prior to PDR
• Vibe, Radiation, Thermal Vacuum testing
– Individual components such as motors and sensors
– Complete mobility unit
• Lubrication and Sealing decisions
– Selection of appropriate lubricant for harmonics and bearings. Will leverage flight heritage
– Design of dust sealing systems are still TBD
• Design mass reduction.
– Utilize RP15 architecture, but design components for 1/6G.
– Leverage design work done prior to RP15.
– Functional testing of 1/6G components likely necessary.

81