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Cambridge Planetary Science Series
Editors: W.I.Axford, G.E.Hunt, T.O. Mutch

Interiors of the planets

A. H. COOK
Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy, University of Cambridge

Interiors of the planets

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge
London New York New Rochelle
Melbourne Sydney
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521106016
© Cambridge University Press 1980

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1980

This digitally printed version 2009

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-0-521-23214-2 hardback

ISBN 978-0-521-10601-6 paperback
FOR ISABELL
The works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that
take pleasure therein.'
From Psalm 111; carved over the entrance to
the Cavendish Laboratory
 CONTENTS

Foreword ix
Note on the expression of planetary masses xi
1 Introduction 1
16
2 The internal structure of the Earth
3 Methods for the determination of the dynamical
properties of planets 51
4 Equations of state of terrestrial materials 88
5 The Moon 132
6 Mars, Venus and Mercury 171
7 High pressure metals 199
8 Jupiter and Saturn, Uranus and Neptune 237
9 Departures from the hydrostatic state 273
10 Conclusion 302
Appendix 1 Limits and conditions on
planetary models 309
Appendix 2 Combination of effects of small
departures from a uniform distribution of density 318
Appendix 3 The physical librations of the Moon 319
References 324
Index 343

vn
 FOREWORD

The planets, which have always been objects of wonder and

curiosity to those with the opportunity or need to lift their eyes to the
heavens, now in our times shine with new and strange lights revealed to us
by the far seeing instruments carried upon space craft. The Moon, Mars,
Venus and Mercury all bear on their surfaces the crater scars of
innumerable meteorites that have fallen upon them from the beginning of
the solar system. The Earth alone has an active surface that has oblit-
erated those scars. Thefluidsurface of Jupiter is in constant and vigorous
motion, driven by heatflowingout from the interior or, it may be, brought
to it by the ultra-violet radiation from the Sun or by the solar wind. The
Medicean satellites of Jupiter now'present to us strange and individual
faces: would Galileo who first saw the mountains on the Moon or the
spots on the Sun have been surprised by the eruption of sodium and
sulphur from Io and the cloud of gas within which it moves, or by the
strange stress patterns upon other of the satellites? Seeing these strange
and varied faces of the planets, each apparently different from any other,
who can forbear to ask, what bodies are these, how are they made up, that
their appearances are so distinctive? Why are some active, and others
apparently dead, some dry, and others thickly covered with atmosphere
or ocean? We have indeed little to go on to answer those questions, just
the sizes of the planets, the grosser features of thefieldsof gravity around
them and the magneticfieldsthey possess. But within recent years, as we
have learnt more by experiment and by theory of the behaviour of solids
and liquids at very high pressures, it has become possible to supplement
our knowledge of the planets with understanding of how their possible
constituents might behave. That, in essence, is the theme of this book. I
aim to explain how the mechanical properties of the planets are deter-
mined nowadays, to describe the behaviour of planetary materials at
planetary pressures, and to combine the Newtonian physics of celestial
ix
 Foreword

mechanics with the quantum physics of highly compressed matter to

establish the general constitution of the planets. No detailed explanation
of the state of each planet can be expected, indeed I shall often emphasize
the limitations upon our knowledge and understanding, but some
connexions can be made between what we see of the surfaces and what
there must be within, and, more speculatively, something may be said
about how the system of planets came into being. But for all the great
achievements of space research our understanding of the planets is still
rudimentary, with many surprises no doubt yet to come, and my emphasis
is upon the ways in which we approach the study of the planets, rather
than on the results we have so far attained.
I am indebted to Mr. W. B. Harland and to Professor V. Heine for
reading certain chapters in typescript and to many other colleagues for
discussions on various topics of this book. I am most grateful to the staff of
the Cambridge University Press for their outstanding help.
 Note on the expression of planetary masses

The masses of all planets are derived from the acceleration of

some object in the vicinity at a known distance. The fundamental quantity
observed is thus the product, GM, of the mass and the gravitational
constant. For example, the value of this product for the Earth is
GMB = 3.986 03 x 10 14 m 3 /s 2 .
Values of such products are known to very high accuracy, that of the
Earth, for example, to a few parts in a million. The constant of gravitation
is, however, poorly known. In this book its value is taken to be
6.67xlO~nm3/s2kg;
it has an uncertainty of a few parts in a thousand.
It follows that ratios of masses are well known, as are the accelerations
to which they give rise, but densities expressed in kilogrammes per cubic
metre have uncertainties of a few parts in a thousand, and that should be
borne in mind in comparing estimates of planetary densities with
laboratory data.

XI
 Introduction

1.1 The wonders of the heavens

The planets have been a subject of wonder to man from earliest
recorded times. Their very name, the Wandering Ones, recalls the fact
that their apparent positions in the sky change continually, in contrast to
thefixedstars. Greek astronomers, Ptolemy particularly, had shown how
the motions of the planets, the Sun and the Moon could be accounted for
if they were all supposed to move around a stationary Earth, and in
mediaeval times an elaborate cosmology was created, at its most alle-
gorical, evocative and poetic in the Paradiso of Dante. The men of the
Renaissance overthrew these ideas but provided fresh cause for wonder
in their place. Placed in motion around the Sun by Copernicus, their paths
observed with care by Kepler, the planets led Newton to his ideas of
universal gravitation. Galileo, his telescope to his eye, showed that they
had discs of definite size and that Jupiter had moons, the Medicean
satellites, which formed a system like the planets themselves.
The discoveries of the seventeenth century settled notions of the
planets for three centuries, but within that framework a most extra-
ordinaryfloweringof the intellect attended the working out of the ideas of
Newton. Closer and closer observation showed ever more intricate
departures of the paths of the planets from the simple ellipses of Kepler,
and each was accounted for by ever subtler applications of mechanics as
the consequence of the gravitational pull of each planet upon its fellows.
For some while the system of planets was tacitly or explicitly supposed to
be closed, until William Herschel, in almost his first excursion into
astronomy from his profession of music, saw from Bath an unknown
planet - Uranus. Much later Adams predicted, a great achievement of
dynamical theory, the existence of a further planet, and Leverrier found
it. Now we know of yet a further planet, Pluto, and of the belt of asteroids
between Mars and Jupiter. The major dynamical features of the motions
1
 Introduction 2

of the planets are now well understood, as are many minor features,
among them the effects of the general-relativistic description of gravita-
tion.
No doubt there are still discoveries to be made in orbital dynamics;
they will-come from the exploitation of modern developments in theory
and, in particular, the execution of lengthy algebraic calculations by
computer, and they will come also from the ever more precise measure-
ments of the motions of the Moon and the planets and space probes that
go close to them, by means of radio, radar and lasers. But these will
probably be refinements; the heroic age of dynamical studies is almost
closed, and other fields are now more productive. Early in this century,
definite ideas about the internal constitution of the Earth began to
develop, while estimates of the densities of the planets were available
from dynamical investigations. It was realized that Mercury, Venus and
Mars, as well as the Moon, must be in a general way similar to the Earth
while the major planets, with much lower densities, were essentially
different. In the 1930s the physics of the solid state and the quantum
mechanics of materials at high pressures, rudimentary though they were
by present day standards, were nonetheless adequate guides to thought
about the nature of the planets, and the conjunction of dynamical studies
on the one hand with the physics of condensed matter on the other is the
theme to be developed in this book.
Space research has certainly contributed to the dynamical study of the
planets, but rather in the way of refinement, for the observations of
natural objects had led to considerable knowledge of the masses, densi-
ties, gravitational fields and moments of inertia of the Moon and a
number of the planets before any space probes were launched towards
them. The refinements have been valuable and have brought precision
and simplicity to what previously may have been approximate and
complex, but the great contributions of space research have been else-
where, to the knowledge of surfaces and surface processes and of
magneticfields.We take it to be almost certain that the magneticfieldof
the Earth and the changes that the surface of the Earth undergoes are
dependent on the internal state of the Earth and are driven by sources of
energy within the Earth. The same is very likely true of the Moon and
planets, but in different ways and to different degrees; surface features
and magnetic fields no doubt contain clues to the nature of the interior,
but we do not yet know how to unravel them; we do not understand the
connexions in the Earth so how much less can we make use of them in
studying the planets. We may nonetheless be fairly confident that it is
 The system of the planets 3

here that the next major step in understanding the planets will be taken.
The relation between the structures of the planets and the natures of the
materials, so far as they can be unravelled by dynamical studies and
understanding of the physics of condensed matter, is established as far as
the major features are concerned. Some ideas of the limits of knowledge
are also clear and further studies are, on the whole, likely to lead to
refinements of present ideas but not to major changes. If major changes
come, it will probably be as a result of understanding the way in which
magneticfieldsand surface processes are related to internal constitutions.

1.2 The system of the planets

Some of the principal facts about the planets are collected in
Table 1.1. It gives the distance of each planet from the Sun, and its radius
and mass, all in terms of the Earth's distance, radius and mass, it gives the
mean density of each and it gives the period of spin about the polar axis.
In Figure 1.1 the masses and densities are plotted against the distance
from the Sun. The table and figure demonstrate the well-known division
of the planets into two groups: the inner, terrestrial planets, relatively
close to the Sun, of low mass and high density, and the outer, major
planets, relatively far from the Sun and having high masses and low
densities. The size and mass of Pluto, the outermost planet, are poorly
known, but it is certainly smaller and denser than the other outer planets.

Table 1.1. The system of planets

Distance Spin
from Sun Density period
(Aur Radiusb Massb (kg/m3) (d)
Moon 0.27 0.0123 3340 28
Mercury 0.387 0.382 0.055 5434 58.6
Venus 0.723 0.949 0.815 5244 243
Earth 1 1 1 5517 1
Mars 1.524 0.532 0.107 3935 1.026
Jupiter 5.203 11.16 317.8 1338 0.411
Saturn 9.539 9.41 95.1 705 0.428
Uranus 19.18 4.02 14.60 1254 0.96?
Neptune 30.06 3.89 16.78 1635 0.92?
Pluto 39.44 0.24 0.002 -1000 6.4
a
The astronomical unit (AU) is the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun
and is equal to 1.496 x 108 km.
b
The radius and mass are given in terms of the Earth's radius (6378 km) and
mass (5.977 x!0 2 4 kg).
 Introduction 4

Any theory of the origin of the solar system must account for the sharp
distinction between the two groups of planets. It is not my purpose to
discuss the problem of the origin of the planets in any detail save that at
the end I shall draw some conclusions about the origin of the planets from
their present structure. The way in which the planets were formed does,
however, have consequences for the chemical constitution of the planets,
that is for the types of material of which we may suppose them to be made
up, and hence for the physical properties of those materials at high
pressure and temperature.
It is nowadays commonly supposed that the planets formed at an early
stage in the history of the Sun, during the so-called Hiyashi phase, when
the Sun was far more extended than it is now. Irregularities of density
were brought about by the influence of a second star and led to conden-
sations from which the planets formed. Many people currently favour a
hot origin of the inner planets, that is to say, that they formed from the
condensation of materials from a hot gas as opposed to accretion from a
cloud of cold dust. It is therefore thought that the temperature of a planet
immediately after formation would be the temperature of condensation.
The distribution of temperature inside the planets is discussed in Chapter
9; here I am concerned to point out that theories of planetary origin entail

Figure 1.1. Masses, densities and distances of the planets.

The mass of Pluto is about 0.002 that of the Earth.
-i 3

• Density +
• Mass
+ - 2
.a

6000
• • +
+
-
I?
•
^ 5000

j2> 4000 •
ss

• | 3000 _ + + -

g 2000
+ •
• •
1000 + •
•
9 © h E
1 i i i i i i I

Logarithm to base 10 of distance from the Sun (Earth = 1)

 The system of the planets 5

certain distributions. They also entail ideas about the compositions of the
planets. In particular, if the planets condensed from a hot gas, then the
different materials would condense in order of their boiling points, those
with the highest points condensing first and so forming the innermost
parts of the planets, followed by other materials in succession and leading
to zoned structures for the planets. Quite detailed predictions of such
sequences have been made, for the thermodynamic properties of
materials that may form planets are known in some detail. Thus, if a
mechanism for the formation of the planets is postulated, it may be
possible to show that it entails a certain internal structure and a certain
thermal history. Such an approach has been widely followed in much
recent discussion, but it is not adopted here. The fact is that the origin of
the solar system remains most obscure and while it may be plausible it is
also surely hazardous to base our ideas of the internal structure of the
planets on theories which of their nature do not admit of empirical
verification.
A different approach is taken in this book. We start with the known
dynamical properties of a planet, the size, mass, density and gravitational
field, and ask what they imply for the internal distribution of density, and
combine that with our knowledge of the properties of likely planetary
materials to derive possible models of the internal structures. It may then
be possible to make useful comparisons between the models derived in
this way and those derived from theories of the origin of the solar system.
No more will therefore be said about the origin of the planets until the
final chapter when we look at the types of structure to which we shall have
been led, and ask if they tell us anything significant about the origin of the
planets. In brief, we are going to try to work back from observations of the
planets, through models of their interiors, to criticisms of theories of
origin, in contrast to going from theories of origin to models of structure
which are constrained to fit the observed properties of the planets.
Seismological studies have enabled the internal structure of the Earth
to be worked out in great detail, so that we know the density and elastic
moduli as functions of pressure from the surface almost to the centre
(Chapter 2). We have, in fact, empirical equations of state for the major
constituents of the Earth and, by comparing them with equations of state
found experimentally in the laboratory, it is possible to identify the
chemical constituents of the Earth with some assurance. For no other
body is that possible and in consequence other, indirect, evidence must be
drawn upon to suggest the nature of the materials of the other planets.
The densities of the major planets are so low that they must be composed
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