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 Boca Raton London New York

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First published 1989 by CRC Press
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 FOCUS ON PHYTOCHEMICAL PESTICIDES

SERIES INTRODUCTION

There is ample evidence to show that the plant kingdom is a vast storehouse of chemical
substances manufactured and used by plants for defense from attack by insects, bacteria,
and viruses. Many of these plants, as well as their chemical components, have been used
since ancient times to prevent and treat diseases occurring in higher animals, including
humans. The scientific and pseudoscientific literature is replete with such reports, some
of which have been confirmed by laboratory and clinical trials, and yet others which have
been shown to be worthless for these purposes.
The CRC Series FOCUS ON PHYTOCHEMICAL PESTICIDES is envisioned as a
comprehensive series of state-of-the-art volumes covering all aspects of plant use as crop
protectants from attack by insects, diseases, fungi, nematodes, and predatory wildlife
such as coyotes, wolves, and rodents. Coverage will not, however, be limited to protection
of crops but will also include the use of plants to protect humans and farm animals from
diseases transmitted through mollusks, fungi, and viruses. Each volume in this series will
contain detailed compilations contributed by known authorities in the particular field. The
high quality of the information contained in these volumes will be assured with the aid of
an Advisory Board composed of worldwide authorities in the phytochemical pesticide field.

M. Jacobson
Editor-in-Chief
 PREFACE
Volume I: The Neem Tree

Approximately one third of the world food crop is damaged or destroyed by insect pests
during growth, harvest, and storage. Losses are considerably higher in many underdevel-
oped countries of Asia and Africa. The monetary loss due to feeding by larvae and adults
of pest insects amounts to billions of dollars each year. Furthermore, the comfort and well
being of humans and beneficial animals are affected directly by household and environ-
mental pests such as lice, ants, roaches, ticks, wasps, and mosquitoes, some of which are
disease carriers and transmitters. Many of the synthetic pesticides previously used for
insect control have been banned or their use seriously curtailed because of concern about
health and environmental effects. Also, the adaptability of insects threatens to undermine
the effectiveness of existing pesticides. It is therefore imperative that safe, biodegradable
substitutes for the synthetic pesticides be discovered.
Over the years, a wealth of literature has accumulated in scientific journals, books, and
other reports on the effectiveness of plants as insect feeding deterrents, repellents,
toxicants, and disruptants of insect growth and development. Heading the list of effective
plants, from the standpoints of number of pest species affected, high activity, availability,
safety, and resistance to predators, is the subtropical neem tree, Azadirachta indica A.
Juss, a hardy member of the plant family Meliaceae. It is therefore fitting that the first
volume in the series Focus On Phytochemical Pesticides should be devoted exclusively
to this "wonder tree".
Based on the wealth of scientific records, both oral and printed, on the effectiveness of
all parts of this tree against countless species of insects, nematodes, bacteria, and viruses,
the First International Neem Conference was held June 16—18,1980, at Rottach-Egern,
West Germany, with more than 40 scientists (chemists, entomologists, botanists, physi-
ologists, and zoologists) from 4 continents in attendance. At this Conference, an informal
steering committee was appointed that quickly became known as the "Neem Mafia",
consisting of Professors K. R. S. Ascher (Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel), E. D. Morgan
(University of Keele, U. K.), H. Rembold (Max-Planck-Institute of Biochemistry, Munich,
West Germany), R. C. Saxena (International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines),
H. Schmutterer (Justus Liebig University, Giessen, West Germany), L. M. Schoonhoven
(Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands), and me. This Conference was so
successful in stimulating worldwide interest and activity in the efficacy of the neem tree that
it was followed by the Second International Neem Conference, held May 25—28,1983,
in Rauischholzhausen, West Germany (105 participants), and the Third International
Neem Conference, held July 10—17, 1986, in Nairobi, Kenya (64 participants).
We express our heartfelt thanks to the Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit
(GTZ), Eschborn, West Germany, for sponsoring and providing generous funding of all
three Conferences, making possible the attendance and participation of numerous
scientists from Asia and Africa, where the neem tree is naturally endemic and widely used
as a pesticide. We are also grateful to Drs.B.S.Parmar and R.P.Singh, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India, for their continuing efforts to keep neem
scientists worldwide informed of progress through quarterly publication and distribution of
the Neem Newsletter, which began in 1984.
Cooperative research between botanists, chemists, and entomologists has very
recently resulted in the commercialization of neem formulations as insect control agents
in Asia, Europe, and the U. S., as well as the successful cultivation of the tree in many areas
where it had not previously existed.

M. Jacobson
 THE EDITOR

Martin Jacobson received his B.S. degree in chemistry from the City University of New
York in 1940. He then accepted an offer as a chemist with the Industrial Hygiene Division
of the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, MD. In 1942, he transferred to the Bureau
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD, as a research chemist to isolate, identify, and
synthesize phytochemical pesticides, insect hormones, and insect sex pheromones.
During this period he pursued evening graduate studies in chemistry and microbiology at
George Washington University, Washington, D.C. He also served as a part-time Research
Associate in Chemistry at that University during the period 1944 to 1948.
From 1964 to 1972, Mr. Jacobson was an Investigations Leader with the Entomology
Research Division at Beltsville, Chief of the Biologically Active Natural Products Labora-
tory from 1973 to 1985, and Research Leader (Plant Investigations) with the Insect
Chemical Ecology Laboratory until his retirement from Federal Service in 1986. He is
currently an agricultural consultant in private practice in Silver Spring, MD.
During his long career with the USDA, Mr. Jacobson spent several weeks in 1971 as
a Visiting Scientist teaching a graduate course on insect pheromones and hormones in the
Department of Chemistry, University of Idaho, Moscow. He was invited to organize
numerous symposiaand speak at national and international scientific meetings in the U.S.,
Europe, Asia, and Africa, in the field of pesticides and sex pheromones occurring naturally
in plants and insects, respectively. His awards include the Hillebrand Prize of the Chemical
Society of Washington in 1971; USDA Certificates of Merit and cash awards for research
in 1965,1967, and 1968; the McGregory Lecture Award in Chemistry at Colgate University
(Syracuse, NY); two bronze medals for excellence in research at the 3rd International
Congress of Pesticide Chemistry, Helsinki, Finland in 1974; USDA Director's Award on
Natural Products research in 1981; and an Inventor's Incentive Award for commercializa-
tion of a boll weevil deterrent in 1983.
Mr. Jacobson has been a member of the American Chemical Society, Chemical Society
of Washington, Pesticide Science Society of Washington, American Association for the
Advancement of Science, New York Academy of Sciences, and a Fellow of the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences. He is the author or coauthor of more than 300 scientific reports
in numerous journals, the author of four books (Insect SexAttractants, John Wiley & Sons,
1965; Insect Sex Pheromones, Academic Press, 1972; Insecticides From Plants. A
Review of the Literature, 1941—1953, USDA Handbook 154, 1958; Insecticides From
Plants. A Review of the Literature, 1954—1971, USDA Handbook 461,1975), and editor
of the book Naturally Occurring Insecticides, Marcel Dekker, 1971. He also holds six U.S.
Patents on naturally occurring insecticides.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1
Cultivation and Propagation of the Neem Tree.
Michael D. Benge

Chapter 2
The Chemistry of the Neem Tree 19
Philip S. Jones, Steven V. Ley, E. David Morgan, and Dinos Santafianos

Chapter 3
Isomeric Azadirachtins and Their Mode of Action 47
Heinz Rembold

Chapter 4
Effects of Neem on Pests of Vegetables and Fruit Trees 69
Heinrich Schmutterer and Carsten Hellpap

Chapter 5
Effect of Neem on Insect Pests of Ornamental Crops Including
Trees, Shrubs, and Flowers 87
Hiram G. Larew

Chapter 6
Effects of Neem on Stored Grain Insects 97
R. C. Saxena, G. Jilani, and A. Abdul Kareem

Chapter 7
The Effects of Neem on Insects Affecting Man and Animal 113
K. R. S. Ascher and J. Meisner

Chapter 8
Pharmacology and Toxicology of Neem 133
Martin Jacobson

Chapter 9
The Commercialization of Neem 155
Robert O. Larson

Index 169
 Volume I: The Neem Tree 1

1 the
Cultivation and Propagation of
Neem Tree
Michael D. Benge
Office of Forestry, Environment, and Natural Resources
Bureau for Science and Technology
Agency for International Development
Washington, D.C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Distribution 2
II. Adaptation 2
III. Silvicultural and Plantation Characteristics 3
IV. Growth 4
V. Yield 5
VI. Coppice Growth 5
VII. Intercropping 6
VIM. Neem Seeds and Propagation 7
A. Yield 7
B. Viability 7
C. Germination 7
IX. Propagation Techniques 8
A. Nursery Care 8
B. Tissue Culture 10
C. Cuttings 10
D. Direct Seeding 10
E. Spacing 11
F. Root Formation 11
G. Survival 12
H. Natural Reproduction 12
X. Germplasm 12
XI. Toxicity, Pests, Diseases, and Limitations 13
A. Toxicity 13
B. Allelopathy 14
C. Pests 14
D. Diseases 15
E. Parasites 15
F. Weeds and Tillage 15
G. Other Problems 15
References 16
2 Focus On Phytochemical Pesticides

I. DISTRIBUTION

Neem is thought to have originated in Burma and is common throughout the open
scrub forest in the dry zone and on the Siwalik hills; and if it is native to India, it occurs
naturally only in Karnatak and in parts of the Deccan Peninsula.1 In its native environ-
ments, neem is generally found growing in mixed forests, and associated with other
broadleaf species, such as Acacia sp. and Dalbergia sissoo. It grows in tropical to
subtropical regions; semiarid to wet tropical regions; and from sea level to over 610 m
(2000 ft). It is cultivated throughout India, and in many places has become wild. (The
fruit is not toxic to birds and bats and it is reported that they are mainly responsible for
the spread of wild neem.) It is now found in many places outside its native distribution
to the sub-Himalayan track, including the northern part of Uttar Pradesh at 610 m (2000
ft) and the southern part of Kashmir at 670 m (2200 ft).2
However, according to Ahmed and Grainge,3 neem is native to the Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent, while others attribute its nativity to the dry forest areas of India, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Burma.4 Nevertheless, neem is found
throughout Pakistan, Sri Lanka, southern Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the north-
ern plains of Yemen and has been recently introduced into Saudi Arabia. The Philippines
has also begun widescale plantings of neem for fuelwood and pesticide production. It
is known that 19th century immigrants carried the tree from the Indo-Pakistan region to
Fiji, and it has now spread to other islands in the South Pacific.
East Indian immigrants introduced neem to Mauritius, and it is thought that they took
it to a number of African countries. It is now widely cultivated on the African continent
in Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Mauritania, Togo, Ivory Coast,
Cameroon, Nigeria, Guinea, Ghana, Gambia, Sudan, Benin, Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso,
Chad, and Senegal, particularly in rainfall-deficient regions.
Neem was also introduced into several Caribbean nations by East Indian immigrants,
and is now propagated by Indian communities as a medicinal plant in Trinidad and
Tobago, Jamaica, Suriname, Guyana, and Barbados.5 Neem plantings are also abun-
dant in Guatemala, Bolivia, Ecuador, Honduras, Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, Nicaragua,
Dominican Republic, St. Lucia, and Antigua and large numbers are now being planted
in Haiti. In addition to the ongoing experimental cultivation of neem in Puerto Rico and
the U.S. Virgin Islands, plantings in southern Florida are thriving, and the field cultivation
of neem in Oklahoma, southern California, and Arizona has begun.36'9

II. ADAPTATION

Neem grows well from sea level to over 670 m (2000 ft), and can be established in
hot and dry regions without irrigation. Neem thrives under subhumid to semi-arid con-
ditions and can be established in areas with an annual rainfall of 450 to 750 mm (18
to 30 in.). Optimum growth is obtained in higher rainfall areas (1150 mm); 130 mm/year
is sufficient for survival,4 but it needs 450 mm to grow successfully. It grows where
maximum shade temperature may be as high as 49°C (120°F), but it does not stand
excessive cold. Neem is frost-tender, especially in the seedling and sapling stages, but
it is grown in frost zones of the sub-Himalayan tract by protecting seedlings during the
winter with screens.7 Fire often kills it outright.2'8'9 According to Gorse,10 neem is not a
very sociable tree, does not grow well in pure stands (plantations in Africa often die out
in 3 to 10 years), and is very competitive for water and soil nutrients; thus it does not
grow well on marginal soils.
Neem seems to grow best in deep sandy soils that are well drained, but can grow in
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 Volume I: The Neem Tree 3

practically all sorts of soil; it thrives on black cotton soil in India and does not do badly
even on clay. It does better than most species in dry localities, on sandy, stony shallow
soils with a waterless subsoil or in places where there is a hard calcareous or claypan
(hardpan) not far from the surface. However, neem will grow much better if this hardpan
is broken up before planting. Occasionally, neem will initially grow well on soils that
appear to be sandy, but quickly die out when roots hit a deep layer of dense clay. Neem
can grow even on saline and on alkaline "usar" soils:11 however, neem has been reported
to be susceptible to moderate salinity in the Sudan.12 Thus within the species, some
provenances must be more genetically tolerant to salinity than others. Fishwick13 ob-
serves that the best neem growth is found on sites with a soil pH of between 6.2 and
7+.
Neem does not tolerate waterlogged soils, and does not do well on soils with impeded
drainage and on soils subject to inundation. Growth is not good on poorly drained soils,
because the taproot tends to rot and the trees gradually die. In Nigeria, De Jussieu14
reported that the best neem groves grew where the water table was 1.5 to 1.75 m down;
at 2.5 m, the groves were only mediocre; and at 8 m, the groves died out. In his report,
the method of planting the neem trees was not given, and in many places in Africa it
was commonplace to establish plantings by stump cuttings, whereby the taproot was
pruned. When this is done, a normal length taproot will not regenerate, and the tree
develops extensive lateral root systems with only pseudo-taproots developing that do
not penetrate deep into the subsoil. In some soils, the water table markedly rises during
the rainy season, and if this rise persists, the roots of neem trees may smother.
Neem does not grow well in soils with high proportions of very fine sand or silt or
finely divided mica; the yellowing of leaves is often followed by death.8 This may be a
result of nutrient deficiency. Research by Zech15 determined that zinc and potassium
deficiencies reduce neem growth evidenced by chlorosis of leaf tips and leaf margins,
particularly on the older leaves: the first symptom of zinc deficiency is yellow coloration
of the intercostal areas leading to complete breakdown of the chlorophyll. The shoots
exude much resin with shedding of the older leaves. With potassium deficiency, leaf tip
and marginal chlorosis and necrosis result.
In Nigeria, where systematic tests have been conducted, it was observed that very
successful neem groves could be found in soils having a high clay content (67%), while
trees died out on soils with a high sand content (83%).14
Neem has been planted on plantation scale in Nigeria since 1936. Most of the forests
in the Sokoto region are of this species. The introduction of neem to Sokoto was cited
as the greatest boon of the century. The tree grew quickly and met the local demand
for firewood and poles for house construction and fence posts, in addition to providing
welcome shade in towns and villages.16 Gorse10 states that neem is often the preferred
species for planting in semiarid areas because animals do not readily browse it, and
when they do, mortality is low and neem recovers rapidly. However, Welle17 reports
severe stunting of neem girdled from bark feeding by goats.

III. SILVICULTURAL AND PLANTATION CHARACTERISTICS

In India, neem is generally found in mixed forests. So far, little is known about the
behavior of neem in plant communities and its ecological potential and limitations.
Individual neem trees are reported to live for 200 years.2 It seems to do much better
on an isolated basis than in full groves, and grows beautifully along roadsides, or as
isolated shade trees. It also does well in mixed species plantings and in relatively well-
spaced rows (approximately 3 m apart) along contour line ditches.14 Michel-Kim and
4 Focus On Phytochemical Pesticides

Brandt18 report that experience in India and Africa indicates that neem may not be suited
for monoculture. This contention is supported by Gorse10 who states that neem is not
a sociable tree and plantations often die after 3 to 10 years, especially on poorer sites.
He contends that neem must be pruned or it will die back, which can be avoided by
pollarding the tree. However, many report neem growing well in monoculture in plan-
tations. 913192 ° One explanation for this variance is that neem is very demanding on
both water and mineral nutrients, and on soils where nutrients are limited neem will not
do well in monocultural plantations.
Neem grows better with shade in its early stage of growth, but demands light as it
matures. Therefore, it has a great capacity for pushing its way through thorny scrub in
its youth. Welle17 reports neem growing exceedingly well in plantations in Haiti where
Leucaena leucocephala is interplanted as a nurse crop, with trees having a better form
(the elephant-foot stump type growth with a large taper is reduced). Radwanski and
Wickens8 report that transplants are likely to be seriously injured by developing leaf
spot (clorosis) as a result of insolation (grown in full sunlight), thus neem does best in
its earlier years when planted with a nurse crop. However once mature, neem does
best in full sunlight, and does not do well as an understory.

IV. GROWTH
Neem is reported to grow relatively fast, but varies greatly depending upon its envi-
ronment, site characteristics, and the genetic capability of the plant material. Slower
growth results at higher elevations, at colder temperatures, and on drier sites. Radwanski7
reports that 66% of the total growth of the tree will occur in the first 3 years, during
which it will reach a height of 4 to 7 m; it will reach 5 to 11 m in the following 5 years.
Seedlings show moderate development, ordinarily reaching a height of 10 to 20 cm (4
to 8 in.) by the end of the first year. As a rule, trees put on a mean-annual girth increment
of 2 to 3 cm (0.9 to 1.2 in.), though more rapid growth is obtained under more favorable
conditions. De Jussieu14 reports that in irrigated groves in India, 16-year-old neem trees
reached diameters over 40 cm, but trees grown in this way break more easily and are
subject to wind damage. Under mediocre conditions, the average diameter of trees in
a 44-year-old grove was 25.5 cm and average height was 10.5 m. In Africa, it is generally
assessed that at 1 year in good soil, a grove reaches a height of about 1.5 m, at 2
years a height of 2 m, and during the fourth year trees reach a diameter of 7 to 8 cm
and a height of about 4.5 m.
Fishwick13 notes that on poor sites, there was evidence that neem stagnated after
the first 5 to 6 years, and for this reason rotations were reduced to 7 years, which
appeared to be more profitable. Furthermore, it appears that the critical time in the
development of the trees in the plantation occurs when crowns begin to touch: the third
or fourth year with a spacing of 8 ft (2.44 m) x 8 ft, and fifth and sixth year at a spacing
of 15 ft (4.57 m) x 15 ft; thus on poor sites the wider spaced trees would cost less to
plant, would be larger, and would have a greater economic value. (Comparing two
plantations on poor sites, the value of the trees at the wider spacing was four times
greater.)
Because weeds compete for moisture and nutrients, early growth of seedlings is much
retarded, and regular weeding and cultivation stimulates neem growth and vigor. Re-
search carried out in Dehra Dun, India, has shown that seedlings that were weeded
reached a height of 0.6 to 1.4 m (2 to 4.5 ft) by the end of the second season, but only
0.5 to 1 m (1.66 to 3.25 ft) if not weeded. Later, the seedlings that were not weeded
were killed by weed suppression and frost.1
 Volume I: The Neem Tree 5

V. YIELD

According to Michel-Kim and Brandt,18 the yield of neem varies between 10 and 100
tons of biomass (dried material) ha/year, depending upon rainfall, site conditions, and
spacing, and 40 tons [12.5 m3 solid wood/ha/year (based on 1 m3 = 800 kg)] can be
achieved easily under the proper conditions. About 50% of the biomass is contained in
the leaves, about 25% in the fruit, and 25% in the wood.
Gravsholt et al.9 reports that the first rotation yield in Ghana was 30 to 38 cords of
fuelwood per hectare (approximately 13.5 to 17 m3/ha/year solid wood); and in Samaru
in northern Nigeria, 7.5 to 67 cords (approximately 2.4 to 21 m3/ha/year). Commonly in
West Africa, plantations are cropped on an 8-year rotation, with a spacing between
trees of 8 x 8 ft (2.4 m x 2.4 m).
Fishwick13 reports that on more suitable sites in Bornu Province in Nigeria, the yield
was 15 to 27 cords/ha/year (13.5 to 24.3 m3 solid wood) on a 7-year rotation. The
plantation spacing was 8 ft (2.43 m) x 8 ft, and site conditions included soils comprising
drift sands with a pH ranging from 5.0 to 7.5 and a mean annual rainfall varying from
380 to 762 mm (15 to 30 in.). An average annual yield for all plantations was 7 to 15
cords/ha (6.3 to 13.5 m3). In Nigeria, neem poles are in great demand for house con-
struction and fence posts because they are semiresistant to termites; poles thus realfze
a greater price than fuelwood.
McComb19 reports plantation yields in Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria, of 300 to 2250 ft3/acre
for the first 8-year rotation crop (2.55 to 19.67 m3/ha/year solid wood); and 350 to 2250
ft3 (3 to 19.67 m3/ha/year) for the 8-year coppice crops on the same plantations. (The
lower yields were for class IV sites, while the higher ones were for class I sites, and
the spacing between trees was 2.4 x 2.4 m.) Interestingly, the first 8-year rotation crop
on class I plantation sites showed an average incremental growth rate of 350 ft3/year
(after the second year), while the coppice crop averaged only 250 ft3/year. There were
no significant growth rate nor yield differences on the class IV sites, and on the class
I sites the volume of the coppice growth by the third year was almost equal to the growth
by the fifth year of the first 8-year rotation crop.
Radwanski21 gives the yields of the Majiya plantation near Sokoto, Nigeria, as 520
ft /acre of fuelwood after 7 years (5.2 m3/ha/year) and after coppicing, 820 ft3 solid
3

volume of fuelwood and 290 ft3 solid volume of timber per acre (total yield of 8.6 m3/
ha/year). The plantation was planted in 1945 with "open-root" neem seedlings (assumed
to mean bare-root), spaced 6 x 6 ft (approximately 1.8 x 1.8 m). The average annual
rainfall in this region was 31 in. (787 mm) with a maximum of 47 in. (1194 mm) to a
minimum of 20 in. (508 mm).
Welle17 reports that trees grown in plantations in Haiti at 4 years of age averaged a
yield of 1 pole plus and 0.09 m3 of fuelwood, but the volume of the pole was not given.
Radwanski22 gives a volume of 1.05 m3 for neem poles in one plantation in Nigeria,
while McComb19 reports a pole volume ranging from 37 to 85% of the total wood
produced.

VI. COPPICE GROWTH

Early growth is faster from coppice than from seedlings, reaching a height of 8.5 m
(28 ft) in 3 years after cutting. However, in Nigeria, the height of 8-year-old coppice was
reported to have only equaled that of 8-year-old trees started from seedlings. In plan-
tations there, trees reached a height of 7 m (23 ft) in 3 years and 12 m (40 ft) in 8 years.
Approximately 66% of height is achieved in the first 3 years after planting.23 Fishwick13
6 Focus On Phytochemical Pesticides

reports that plantations in Nigeria were cut to a stump height of 8 cm (3 in.), and coppice
from such low stumps is less likely to suffer from wind damage than from higher stumps.
Higher stumps also have a higher incidence of dying off. Grose10 observed that by
cutting at a stump height of 1 to 2 m, the number of poles produced by coppice will
increase. Radwanski7 recommends a coppice management system every 3 years for
maximum biomass yield based on the observation that 66% of the growth of the tree
occurs in the first 3 years. However, this merits further research, since much faster
growth of coppice occurs once the root system is established, and a much shorter
rotation may give a maximum yield.

VII. INTERCROPPING
Radwanski and Wickens8 report, "Neem cannot be grown among agricultural crops
since it will not tolerate the presence of any other species in its immediate vicinity, and
if not controlled, may become aggressive by invading neighboring crops." Troup1 re-
ported that seedlings that were not weeded were suppressed and eventually killed
because of weeds (and frost). But Makay24 reported that even though neem seedlings
had been hidden from August and September under a 10-ft (3-m) high crop of millet,
neem did surprisingly well. The seedlings were still healthy, did not appear to have been
retarded after the millet was harvested in October, and a healthy stand of neem was
left behind. Others state that neem can be planted in combination with fruit cultures and
crops for feeding cattle (e.g., Pennisetum pedicellatum, as suggested by Misra).25 Also,
recommendations have been made for combinations of neem with sesame, cotton, and
hemp;26 with peanuts, beans, sorghum;7'27'28 with/Acac/a arabica (synonym A. nilotica)
and cotton;1 and with Khaya senegalensis.29
In Nigeria, a form of taungya was used for neem plantation establishment and farmers
cultivated groundnuts, beans, and millet between the trees, but the forest department
planted the trees. These plantations were superior in survival and quality to plantations
established by other means, and the cost was much lower. In areas where neem
plantations were cleared, groundnuts were cultivated and yielded three times the av-
erage for other fields.13
It is known that the compounds found in neem are not only effective against insect
pests, and beneficial in the efficient use of nitrogen, but they also affect some fungi and
bacteria. Thus, the tree may have a significant influence on the balance within the
microfauna, fungi, and bacteria communities. Because plants depend upon a certain
microfauna and a special complex of bacteria and fungi, it is possible that where neem
changes the composition significantly, problems may arise. The effect of neem may be
both positive and negative, and research is needed to prove or disprove these factors.18
Perhaps neem is allelopathic to some crops. There are many conflicting statements
as to its compatibility for intercropping with food crops; some agree that it has poor
agroforestry potential because of its interference with other crops or vice versa. There
is no clear explanation made as to the intolerances, either of neem to other crops or
vice versa. Or the reason may be that since neem fruits produce a systemic, somewhat
repugnant chemical, food crops may take up this chemical from fruits falling on the
ground once the tree begins bearing fruit (usually at 5 years). Food crops might then
have a bitter taste; hence the reference that neem is not a good species for agroforestry.
Research is surely needed to prove or disprove the incompatability of neem as an
intercrop and agroforestry species.
The answer may be to plant neem in mixed forests in combination with pasture.
Michel-Kim and Brandt18 suggest that up to 20% of the area could be planted to neem,
 Volume I: The Neem Tree 7

and village plantings could constitute up to 15%. Neem would also be a good species
for use in a sequential agroforestry system as illustrated in the Radwanski and Wickens
paper.8 Another excellent use of neem in agroforestry systems is for windbreaks. In the
Majjia Valley in Niger, over 500 km of windbreaks (a form of agroforestry) comprising
double rows of neem trees have been planted to protect millet crops and to supply wood
to local villagers. This has resulted in a 20% grain yield increase for local farmers and
the windbreaks are lopped and provide needed fuel and construction wood to vil-
lagers.30'31
Perhaps one of the best agroforestry potentials of neem is growing it for its various
useful products where it is not intercropped with food crops, and the products (leaves,
neem cake, etc.) are processed or used in a cut-and-carry system and applied to food
crops as a fertilizer and pesticide.

VIM. NEEM SEEDS AND PROPAGATION

Neem begins to bear fruit in 3 to 5 years.32 The period of collection of neem fruits
naturally varies from place to place, depending upon the regional climatic conditions.
In India, collection may begin as early as May and extend through September; however,
there seems to be two distinct fruiting periods, May — June and August — September.
The fruits are collected from the trees when fully ripe or are gathered from beneath
trees.

A. YIELD
Neem produces fruits in 3 to 5 years and becomes fully productive in 10. Ketkar2
gives a yield of about 50 kg (110 lb)/tree/year; Ahmed and Grainge3 30 to 50 kg (66.6
to 110 Ib); and Radwanski33 lists 11.4 to 34 kg (25 to 75 Ib), averaging about 20.5 kg
(45 Ib). About 2000 to 3000 fruits weigh 1 kg, the depulped fruit yields about 1800
seeds/kg,14 and 9 to 10 dry seeds weigh 1 g.34 The ratio of seed to pulp is approximately
1:2, and fruit pulp and kernels account for 47.5 and 10.1%, respectively, of fruit weight.35
For reproduction seed preparation, the fruits are rubbed and washed to remove the
flesh from around the seeds. After washing, the seeds are dried in the shade and
preferably stored in dry, airtight containers.

B. VIABILITY
Usually, neem seeds remain viable for only a few weeks, about 1 to 2 months, and
normally they are collected when thoroughly ripe and sown as soon as possible. But
when mature seeds are depulped and adequately dried and cooled, they can be stored
for longer periods. Reportedly, germination rates rapidly decline during storage. How-
ever, Brouard36 cites work by Dr. Paul B. Tompsell at the Royal Botanical Gardens in
Great Britain, who froze seeds after drawing the seed moisture content to below 8%
and they remained viable up to 2 years. To obtain a high germination percentage, seeds
must be collected when they are fresh, cleaned thoroughly, and handled carefully (to
avoid cracking).

C. GERMINATION
Seeds germinate in about 2 weeks after sowing. Fresh neem seed germinates quite
readily and scarification is generally not needed. Research at the Royal Botanic Gardens
in Great Britain indicates that germination is improved if the inner shell is removed to
expose the embryo before planting,8 and Smith37 reports the same. However, Singh34
8 Focus On Phytochemical Pesticides

recommends that the seeds be cut across with a sharp blade and the cotyledons
examined: if the cotyledons are green the seeds are sound, but if they have turned
yellow or brown, they will not germinate.
In more efficient containerized nurseries, it is desirable to produce a sprouted seed
in every container because less space is required and it reduces per-seedling labor
costs. Experiments were conducted by Operation Double Harvest in Haiti in an attempt
to pregerminate neem seeds for transfer to container; however, the research showed
that 47% of pregerminated seed had a major taproot deformity (crooked or looped),
while the roots of only 7% of dry sown seed were deformed.38
Fagoonee39 found that germination is best when seeds that have fallen from trees
during the preceding week are soaked in water for about 3 d, depulped and cleaned,
then sown directly into the nursery in damp soil. The soaking breaks the dormancy by
neutralizing the germination-inhibiting chemicals found in the shell of the seed.
However, Ezumah40 concludes that neem seeds do not require a period of after-
ripening. Seed origin, year, and time of producton have no significant effect on germi-
nation and longevity. Sun-drying does not adversely affect viability and appears pref-
erable to air-drying to bring seed moisture content to 10% or less before storage. The
method of seed cleaning also has no significant effect on germination and longevity;
thus, decomposing the pulp before washing by keeping the fruits in a heap is easier
than peeling the pulp from fresh fruits. Cold storage adversely affects the viability of
neem seed; seeds stored at room temperature (20 to 28°C) retained some viability for
16 weeks, while viability lasted for only 12 weeks at cold storage (6 to 7°C).

IX. PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES

Most commonly, neem seedlings are propagated in the nursery and transplanted to
the field, although direct sowing has been successful in some areas if rainfall is ade-
quate.1'17
Although neem needs light, young seedlings can suffer from strong solar radiation;
thus a light shade is desirable during the first season of growth. Sudden exposure of
seedlings without first hardening off will result in a high rate of mortality. Seedlings
naturally regenerated under old stands often die when the trees are cut and the canopy
is opened.13

A. NURSERY CARE
In the nursery, seedlings are either grown in containers (plastic bags or root-trainers)
or in seedbeds. Germination starts in about 8 d and continues to about 3 weeks.

1. Bags and Other Containers

Seeds are sown directly into the container filled with potting soil and are ready for
transplanting in 12 weeks.41 In Haiti, seedlings are grown in containerized nurseries
and transplanted in 3 to 5 months, depending upon the rainfall pattern.17

2. Seedbeds
If the nursery is irrigated, seeds can be harvested early, in April, and planted in the
nursery. The seed should be lightly covered with earth and sparingly watered, the soil
kept loose to prevent caking. Singh34 recommends a spacing of 5 cm in-row and 20
cm inter-row, planting the seed at a depth of no less than 1 cm to minimize rodent
damage. Fishwick13 states that seeds should be sown thickly in lines 30 cm apart,
selectively thinned when the seedlings are about 8 cm high (3 in.) to a spacing of 8
 Volume I: The Neem Tree 9

cm, and selectively thinned again in 4 to 5 months with only the best stock remaining
at a spacing of about 23 cm (9 in.).

3. Seedlings
Recommendations when seedlings are ready and what the height is at the time of
transplant vary. If seeds are planted early in April, seedlings should be ready for trans-
planting by July (4 months), reaching a height of 15 to 20 cm. De Jussieu14 and Troup1
report that neem fruits from April to July, and seeds are planted in seedbeds in a partially
shaded nursery as soon as possible after harvest, around the middle of July when the
rains begin, and are ready for transplant by the next rainy season, after reaching a
height of about 0.80 to 1 m. Radwanski7 and TAREC41 indicate that seedlings are ready
for transplant in about 12 weeks when they are 7.5 to 10 cm high (3 to 4 in.), with a
taproot approximately 15 cm long (6 in.). Mitra42 recommends transplanting when seed-
lings reach 7.5 to 10 cm. (3 to 4 in.) high. According to Singh,34 seedlings transplanted
younger than 1 year have a poor survival rate; this does not hold true according to
experience in Haiti, where the survival rate of 3 to 5-month container-grown neem
transplants is 85%.17

4. Root Balls
Seedlings that have not been planted during the first year are kept until the following
season and sometimes until they are 2 years old. Year-old seedlings are carefully
uprooted from the nursery leaving a ball of soil around the roots, and transplanted as
soon as possible. Planting is done in July — August in pits dug in April — May, which
allows weathering of the soil, and if rain immediately follows, good survival rate is
ensured. In dry areas, about 90% of the leaves are removed, reducing evapotranspir-
ation, and decreasing transplant shock. The areas in the vincinity of the trees must be
kept weed-free.34

5. Stumps
In India, stumps are usually prepared from 2-year-old seedlings, although in irrigated
nurseries, year-old seedlings may attain the desired size for stump preparation. The
seedlings should be uprooted with care to avoid splitting or breaking the taproot. Stumps
are prepared with 22-cm roots and 5-cm shoot portions and wrapped (bare-rooted) in
moist gunney sacks and kept in the shade until transplanted. Just before planting in 30
cm3 pits, desiccated root and shoot tips are pruned.34 In Nigeria, Fishwick13 found that
seedlings cut to a stump height of 0.3 m (1 ft) were better than taller ones because
they were easier to handle and provided sufficient buds for sprouting, and were not
damaged by wind, which whipped taller ones, loosened the soil, and exposed the roots.
Roots were trimmed to 30 cm (12 in.), with most of the new growth produced by the
callus that forms at the point where the roots are trimmed. Survival was increased when
the seedlings were cut in the seed bed rather than at the time of lifting because shock
was reduced by not cutting, lifting, and transplanting at the same time, and a callus
tissue would form on the shoot wound before lifting. In Africa, Gorse10 cut canes to a
height of 1.5 m and removed all leaves before transplant, and in this way the bark is
already hardened and not as susceptible to damage by animals.

6. Disadvantages
There are distinct disadvantages to planting overage seedlings. First, it is very costly
to keep and care for seedlings for 1 to 2 years. The added weight of seedlings with a
soil root ball drastically increases transportation costs and reduces the number of seed-
lings that can be delivered to the planting site, especially if they are hand carried. Another
10 Focus On Phytochemical Pesticides

problem: when seedlings are transplanted bare-rooted, they suffer severe transplant
shock, roots dry out, root hairs and beneficial mycorrhizae die. Survival rate is decreased,
and growth rate is retarded.

B. TISSUE CULTURE
The use of tissue culture and cuttings to produce neem for reforestation has been
deemed unrealistic in most cases because of the high cost of a production facility, and
the relative ease of producing seedlings.43 Also, it is questionable whether tissue-cul-
tured plantlets and cuttings will develop full taproots. However, it could be economically
justified to screen and reproduce plants of unique germplasm (such as a tree with an
unusually high azadirachtin content) in this manner for seed orchard establishment in
more moist areas, which would not be affected by limited taproot development.
Neem has been successfully tissue-cultured from leaflet callus tissue and from stem
tissue by growing it in modified Murashige and Skoog media, producing roots in 40%
of the cultures and developing into complete plantlets in a supplemented medium.44'46
In further tissue culture research, Schultz47 was not able to achieve root initiation as
reported by Sanyal et al.,44 which supported research by Rangaswamy and Promila48
describing the differentiation of "growth centres" in Azadirachta callus and the eventual
shoot bud formation with rarely any rooting. Again, it is questionable whether a normal
length taproot will develop from tissue-cultured plantlets, which would exclude their
planting in water-stressed areas.

C. CUTTINGS
Neem can also be propagated by cuttings, which require a production period of 6
months to 1 year,41 but again the development of a normal taproot would be doubtful.
Air-layered branches treated with IBA or NAA in lanolin paste at 0.1% develop roots
satisfactorily.49 In Nigeria, Fishwick13 records that in Maiduguri a number of neem shoot
cuttings were treated with a rooting hormone (Seradex B) and then placed in pots. A
number took, but did not survive after being transplanted. In Sokoto, the work was
repeated, but cuttings were covered with polythene bags, and a number survived after
being transplanted. It was found that a significantly higher proportion of the cuttings
took root when they were taken and prepared at the start of the rainy season.

D. DIRECT SEEDING
In the literature, the term "direct seeding" (sowing) is used in two ways — direct
seeding in the nursery and direct seeding in the field. In India and Nigeria, direct sowing
is reported to have proven more successful for reforestation than transplanting; however,
this is when areas to be sown are well prepared (similar to land preparation for sowing
food crops). Direct seeding on hard and inhospitable soils has not been very successful,
but establishment and growth can be greatly enhanced when seeds are sown in bore
holes that have been dug in these hard soils and filled with a fertile potting mix. Research
has shown that hole size on difficult sites can significantly enhance establishment and
growth of transplanted seedings. Although drilling bore holes with a post-hole auger
and filling them with a potting mix may to some seem expensive, the cost is comparable
to nursery raising and transplanting seedlings.
When direct-seeded, neem establishes an extensive root system before aerial growth
becomes rapid.4 Site preparation and transplanting are the two biggest costs of refo-
restation, and direct seeding can markedly reduce transplanting costs. De Jussieu14
reports that aerial seeding has been tried but yielded poor results, since the chances
of survival for the seeds is much lower than direct seeding on prepared land. Gorse10
recommends the use of a groundnut planter and weeder for direct seeding and weeding,
and covering the seed beds with a 10 to 15-cm mulch of groundnut hulls.
 Volume I: The Neem Tree 11

Welle17 reports that direct seeding has proven to be a viable method of establishment
in Haiti. Seedlings raised in nursery beds are ready for tranplanting during the first rains
when they are 7.5 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in.) high. Sometimes seedlings are retained in nursery
beds and transplanted during the second rainy season.11
Methods of direct seeding vary.7'11'34 In India:

1. The soil is worked to a depth of about 15 cm and the seeds are sown at a depth
of 1.5 cm. Sowing is done either in patches or lines; in the former they are spaced
about 3 x 3 m, and spacing between lines is about 3 m, using 3 to 4 kg of seed
per hectare. Weeding is necessary and seedlings are thinned at the end of the
first season, leaving two seedlings per patch or two seedlings per meter length of
the line.
2. Seed was sown at high and dry sites that had been plowed twice. No watering
was done, but the seedlings were kept free of weeds. In less than 3 years, the
plants were 7 to 8 ft high, the growth being equal to or better than that of transplants
that had been carefully watered and tended. Trees in similar plantings at another
site measured up to 12 ft in 3 years.
3. Direct seeding into mounds of earth 12 x 4 x 1.5 ft on sites receiving 24 in. (600
mm) of rain annually produced plants that reached a maximum height of 4.5 ft in
1 year.
4. Neem was sown in combination with the cultivation of sesame, cotton, and the
lesser hemp in an area with an annual rainfall of less than 500 mm (20 in.). The
sown lines were 0.3 m (1 ft) apart, three lines of field crops to one line of trees,
so that the latter were 1.2 m (4 ft) apart. Sowing of both field crops and trees was
done after site preparation by plowing and harrowing. The lines of trees were
weeded twice during the first rains. The trees reached a height of 5 m (16 ft) and
girth of 43 cm (17 in.) in 3 years.
5. Direct sowing into plowed furrows in black cotton-soil produced trees with a max-
imum height of 1.5 m (5 ft) after 1 year.
6. Success has been achieved by dibbling neem seed under Euphorbia bushes.

In Nigeria, Fishwick13 reports successful direct seeding at the bases of the native
cover, with a survival rate of about 40 trees/ha. It was observed that although the rate
of growth is generally slower than on cultivated sites, it had merits of simplicity and
cheapness to enrich degraded forest area.
In northern Nigeria, neem interplanted on farms among groundnuts, beans, and millet
showed markedly superior growth. When the crop was harvested, a healthy stand of
neem seedlings was left behind.4

E. SPACING
Neem seems to be very nutrient-demanding, and has been known to send out lateral
surface roots reaching over 18 m.50 In Nigeria, a spacing of 1.8 x 1.8 m is recom-
mended,14 and Gorse10 recommends a much wider spacing on poorer sites.

F. ROOT FORMATION
Roots that have been pruned (as suggested in the stump planting method) may not
regenerate into a long, normal taproot (rather they develop several shorter pseudo
taproots, which are not as long as a normal one). Fishwick13 found, by digging, that a
2-year-old tree planted from a stump possessed seven taproots, each with a 1.27-cm
(V2-in.) diameter at a depth of 12 ft (full depth of penetration was not recorded). The
author does not know if neem, under normal circumstances from a seed with an un-
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