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 Women’s Places:

Architecture and Design 1860–1960

What was different about the environments that women created as architects,
designers and clients at a time when they were gaining increasing political and
social status in a male world? Through a series of case studies, Women’s Places:
Architecture and Design 1860–1960, examines in detail the professional and
domestic spaces created by women who had money and the opportunity to
achieve their ideal. Set against a background of accepted notions of modernity
relating to design and architecture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, this
book provides a fascinating insight into women’s social aspirations and
identities.
The variety of case studies looking at women as producers, clients, consumers
and theorists examines: Princess Louise, Kate Greenaway, the Hall sisters,
Josephine Baker, Elsie de Wolfe, Eileen Gray, Elizabeth Denby, Dora Gordine
and Marie Dormoy.
With 57 illustrations and drawing on original and pioneering research, this
book provides new information and new interpretations in the study of gender,
material culture and the built environment in the period 1860–1960.
Employed initially as the research assistant during the restoration of Dorich
House, the former home and studio of the sculptor Dora Gordine and her
husband, the Hon. Richard Hare, Brenda Martin is now its Curator, and
continues her work as a design historian. Her research interests include 1930s’
interiors and design and artists’ studios.
Penny Sparke is a design historian who has written many books and
researched widely in the field of design and modern interiors, both in the UK and
the USA. She was responsible for setting up the V&A Museum/Royal College of
Art Postgraduate History of Design Programme. She is currently the Dean of the
Faculty of Art, Design & Music and a Professor of Design History at Kingston
University. Her current research interests include gender and American interiors
in the early 20th century.
Contributors: Louise Campbell, Elizabeth Darling, Alice T.Friedman, Tanis
Hinchdiffe, Trevor Keeble, Lynne Walker
 Women’s Places:
Architecture and Design 1860–1960

Edited by Brenda Martin and Penny Sparke

LONDON AND NEW YORK

 First published 2003 by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of
thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
© 2003 Selection and editorial, Brenda Martin and Penny Sparke; individual
chapters, the authors
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Women’s places: architecture and design 1860–1960/edited by Brenda Martin
and Penny Sparke.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-415-28448-1 (hardcover: alk. paper)—ISBN 0-415-28449-X
(paperback: alk. paper)
1. Women architects. 2. Women designers. 3. Aesthetic movement (Art)
I. Martin, Brenda. II. Sparke, Penny.
NA1997 .W67 2003
720’.82–dc21
2002152015

ISBN 0-203-40201-4 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-40843-8 (Adobe eReader Format)

ISBN 0-415-28449-X (pb)
ISBN 0-415-28448-1 (hb)
 Contents

Illustration credits vi

Contributors vii

Introduction ix

1 Questions of identity: women, architecture and the Aesthetic Movement 1

Louise Campbell

2 Creating ‘The New Room’; the Hall sisters of West Wickham and Richard 22
Norman Shaw
Trevor Keeble

3 Elsie de Wolfe and her female clients, 1905–15: gender, class and the 44
professional interior decorator
Penny Sparke

4 Your place or mine? The client’s contribution to domestic architecture 65

Alice T.Friedman

5 Architecture and reputation: Eileen Gray, gender, and modernism 82

Lynne Walker

6 Marie Dormoy and the architectural conversation 106

Tanis Hinchcliffe

7 A house of her own; Dora Gordine and Dorich House (1936) 118
Brenda Martin

8 Elizabeth Denby or Maxwell Fry? A matter of attribution 139

Elizabeth Darling
 v

Select Bibliography 159

Index 163
 Illustration credits

The authors and the publishers would like to thank the following individuals and
institutions for giving permission to reproduce illustrations. We have made every
effort to contact copyright holders, but if any errors have been made we would
be happy to correct them at a later printing.
Aaron, P./Esto
Adam, P.
Architectural Press
Beinecke Library, Yale University
British Architect
Bromley Borough Council
Canadian Center for Architecture, Montreal
Carlu, J. et al.
Centraal Museum, Utrecht
de Wolfe, E. The House in Good Taste, New York: The Century Company,
1913
de Wolfe, E. After All, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1935
English Heritage
Frank den Oudsten
Friedman, A.T.
Ginain, L.
Greenaway, K. Under the Window, 1879
Irvine, A.
Larkin Brothers
Library of Congress, Washington DC
Murry, J.S.
National Monuments Record Centre
National Portrait Gallery, London
Perret, A.
RIBA
Royal School of Art Needlework
Spielman, M. and Layard, G., Kate Greenaway (London: Adam and Charles
Black, 1905)
Victoria and Albert Museum
 Contributors

Louise Campbell is a Senior Lecturer in the History of Art Department at the

University of Warwick. She is the author of Coventry Cathedral: Art and
Architecture in Post-war Britain (Clarendon Studies in the History of Art,
OUP, 1996), a chapter in Frederic Leighton: Antiquity, Renaissance,
Modernity (Yale University Press, 1998), and of articles in Architectural
Review, Architectural History, RIBA Journal, Apollo, Twentieth-century
Architecture and British Art Journal. She is the editor of the millennial
volume published by the Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain,
Twentieth-Century Architecture and its Histories (2000). She is currently
working on a study of artists’ habitats in France and Britain.
Elizabeth Darling is an architectural historian and runs the undergraduate
programme in history and theory in the School of Architecture and Design at
the University of Brighton. Her doctoral thesis considered the work of the
housing consultant Elizabeth Denby while her other research interests include
design reform in the 1930s and the relationship between health reform and the
built environment in inter-war Britain. She has published articles on architecture
and its users; on the ideology of the voluntary housing sector in inter-war
Britain and on housing exhibitions in the 1930s. Her most recent project is the
production of a module about post-war British exhibition design for the JISC-
funded Distributed National Electronic Resource project, hosted by the
University of Brighton, to develop electronic learning packages on British
design culture.
Alice T.Friedman is Professor of Art and Director of the Architecture
Program at Wellesley College Massachusetts, USA, where she has taught
since 1979. From 1999–2002 she held the Luella LaMer Professorship in
Women’s Studies. Professor Friedman is the author of two books: House and
Household in Elizabethan England: Wollaton Hall and the Willoughby Family
(University of Chicago Press, 1989) and Women and the Making of the
Modern House: A Social and Architectural History (Harry Abrams, New York,
1998), as well as numerous articles on architecture, gender and social history.
She is currently completing a book about American and European architecture
in the period following the Second World War.
viii

Tanis Hinchcliffe is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Architecture at the

University of Westminster where she teaches history. Her research interests
are the culture and theory of architecture in eighteenth-century France; modes
of domesticity in the nineteenth century; and the modernist project in France
and England during the twentith century. She is the author of North Oxford
(Yale University Press, 1992), and articles on Peter Collins, eighteenth-
century French architects and their women clients, and on Quatremere de
Quincy.
Trevor Keeble is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Art and Design History at
Kingston University, London. He is currently working on a PhD entitled ‘The
domestic moment: design, taste and identity in the late Victorian English
domestic interior’.
Brenda Martin is the Curator of Dorich House, the former home and studio
of the sculptor Dora Gordine and her husband, the Hon. Richard Hare, and
now part of the Faculty of Art, Design & Music at Kingston University,
London. Her research interests include 1930s’ interiors and design and artists’
studios. She is currently preparing a catalogue of the collection of sculpture of
Dora Gordine in Dorich House for publication in 2003.
Penny Sparke is Dean of the Faculty of Art, Design & Music and a Professor
of Design History at Kingston University, London. Until 1999 she was the
Course Director of the joint V&A Museum/Royal College of Art Postgraduate
History of Design Programme. She has published widely in the field of Design
History and latterly on the subject of gender and design. Her recent
publications include A Century of Design (Mitchell Beazley, 1999) and As
Long as It’s Pink: The Sexual Politics of Taste (Pandora, 1995). Her current
research interests include gender and American interiors in the early twentieth
century.
Lynne Walker was formerly Senior Lecturer in the History of Architecture
and Design at the University of Northumbria, and is currently Senior Research
Fellow at the Institute of Historical Research, University of London. She has
published widely on gender, space and architecture and has curated two major
exhibitions on related issues, most recently, ‘Drawing on diversity: women,
architecture and practice’ (RIBA Heinz Gallery, 1997). She is writing a history
of British women and architecture.
 Introduction
Penny Sparke

Appearing as it does after thirty years of writings about women’s relationships

with architecture and design Women’s Places: Architecture and Design 1860–
1960 belongs to an academic tradition that is well established. However, it brings
to that tradition a new perspective and offers fresh insights. That it can do this is
dependent upon its awareness of existing work and its focus on case studies and
the personal biographies of a number of specific women who have interacted
with architecture and design over the hundred-year period, 1860–1960. This
approach has provided the subject both with new material and with new
interpretations. Straddling the usually distinct worlds of architecture and interior
design, Women’s Places is also able to suggest new ways of thinking about the
relationships between women and these two disciplines which cross the
boundaries between them. In addition, it seeks to embrace a wider range of
relationships than have traditionally been covered, showing that women have
interfaced with architecture and design not only as producers and consumers and
clients but also as collaborators and commentators. As this collection of case
studies will clearly demonstrate, women have brought a number of ways of
working and a range of approaches and attitudes to these subtle and shifting
relationships. Above all, Women’s Places offers a pluralistic reading of some of
the ways in which women living in the Western industrialised world have
worked with, and related to, architecture and design.
The tradition which this publication recognises, respects and extends has dealt
with the relationships of women to the material and spatial environment they
have inhabited over the last century and a half. It began in earnest in the early
1970s and has gone through a number of methodological transformations. Not
until the women’s movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s had raised the
consciousness of large numbers of women who sought to assert their rights in a
wide range of fields did a rigorous approach to the subject emerge. In the early
years interest lay, as it did in many other fields of enquiry into women’s roles in
history, in the names of women who had been excluded from the accounts that
had been written about the creative arts which had come to form the accepted
canon. This ‘hidden from history’ approach, which involved a great deal of
primary research and new analysis, was an important part of the feminist project
of the 1970s and 1980s which aimed to capture women’s contributions to the
x

cultural past and demonstrate that, within patriarchy, the fact that women had
been edited out of the picture, was just another example of male domination.
Back in 1973 Doris Cole wrote her influential book From Tipi to Skyscraper in
which she clearly demonstrated that women had played, and continued to play, a
central role within the male-dominated world of architecture.1 It established an
important tradition which others were to follow. Four years later Susan Torre
picked up the baton and edited a book of essays entitled Women in American
Architecture: A Historic and Contemporary Perspective.2 In the same year
Gwendolyn Wright published her essay entitled ‘On the Fringe of the Profession:
Women in American Architecture’ in an edited volume.3 Dorothy M.Anderson’s
Women, Design and the Cambridge School followed in 1980, focusing attention
on a group of female architects working in a particular context while Ellen Perry
Berkeley and Mathilda McQuaid’s edited book of essays entitled Architecture: A
Place for Women appeared at the end of the decade.4 Lynne Walker moved the
emphasis to the other side of the Atlantic in her essay, also published in 1989,
‘Women Architects’ which dealt with female British architects working in the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.5 Some years later another British
publication—edited by K.Ruedi, S.Wigglesworth and D.McCorquodale Desiring
Practices: Architecture, Gender and the Interdisciplinary—developed these
ideas in their discussions of some of the ways in which women contributed to the
practice of architecture.6 Gradually studies of individual women working in
architecture began to surface, especially in the USA, and monographs appeared
on individuals, such as Julia Morgan, the architect of Hearst Castle in California,
who had made significant contributions to the built environment. Texts such as
these sought to raise women’s achievements to the level of their male
counterparts and to show how a number of women—albeit inevitably a smaller
number than men—had been effective and influential architects. The list
gradually expanded and the work of women in areas such as garden design—
Ellen Shipman among them—began to be documented thereby broadening the
narrow emphasis on the built structure. The 1990s saw a huge expansion of yet
more studies which focused on the subject of women and architecture, many of
them concerned to show that women had worked as architects but that their work
had not been documented.
That architecture, rather than industrial design, craft or interior design, was the
first area of material culture to track down its female protagonists was a result of
the fact that it was an overridingly masculine, and even more importantly,
professionalised, field in which women felt they had to prove themselves and
show that they had participated and could continue to participate. Inside the
domestic sphere—the physical arena of interior decoration and the hand-made
and the industrially manufactured object—the traditional links with feminine
culture were stronger and it took longer for women to want to celebrate their
involvements with these activities. It was believed, in the early years of the
women’s movement, less was to be achieved by claiming creative achievements
in a sphere in which women were already accepted. Gradually, however, these
 xi

arenas too came to be retrieved from their ‘hidden from history’ status. Isabelle
Anscombe’s A Woman’s Touch: Women in Design from 1860 to the Present Day
was published in 1984 ensuring that women’s achievements inside the house, as
well as outside it, were recognised.7 Later, in 1991, Jill Seddon and Suzette
Worden provided documentation relating to women designers working in Britain
in the inter-war years which added a whole new list of names to those already
reclaimed by Anscombe.8
It is significant that the period covered by Anscombe’s book was that
recognised as the modernist era. It was becoming apparent that the majority of
women who were being reclaimed, both in architecture and design, could, for the
most part, be inserted into the modernist paradigm, or at least added to the edges
of it. What this meant was that while new names were emerging, their work was
being analysed and judged by the same criteria that were used to describe and
position the work of those contributors to the modernist canon. Thus, when the
work of individuals such as Eileen Gray, Lilly Reich, Charlotte Perriand, and more
recently Ray Eames, was reclaimed, it was clear that their contribution was
recognised because it extended the modernist canon.9 The same can be said, to
some extent, of many of the female designers and craftswomen whose names
began to be familiar—among them Marion Dorn and Susie Cooper—whose
work can be seen as modernist, although at the decorative end of the spectrum.10
Interestingly, the addition of women interior decorators to the list of female
achievers, along with a number of other female practitioners in a range of other
design fields, had to wait until 2000 for publication in Pat Kirkham’s Women
Designers in the USA, 1900–2000, so far removed are the ethos and the aesthetic
of their work from the modernist ideal.11
While the ‘hidden from history’ approach represented a crucial stage in the
addition of a number of named women to the context of architecture and design,
it was, however, only a first step. The tendency was to add them to the ‘great and
the good’ and their work to the modernist canon, rather than let it pose new,
more difficult questions which demanded new answers. Gradually, however, a
number of key texts took scholarship in this area into a number of new directions.
All of them have provided important foundations for Women’s Places.
Within architectural history Dolores Hayden’s The Grand Domestic
Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods
and Cities of 1981 and Gwendolyn Wright’s Moralism and the Modern Home
took the emphasis away from architectural modernism and placed it on women
and their relationship with domesticity.12 Stemming from their feminist beliefs,
both historians sought to consider women’s interventions in architecture less as
contributions to the canon than as activities undertaken on their own terms. A
new approach was instigated which was aligned to contemporary female
historians’ growing interest in the concept of the ‘separate spheres’. Their
motivation was to find a level of women’s contribution which took place within
the private, non-paid arena of the home rather than in the masculine sphere of the
professionalised workplace. Hayden’s female architects were simultaneously
xii

both producers and consumers and, as a result, crossed the public/private divide.
Wright’s interests repositioned women’s interventions in architecture in the
private sphere and established new meanings for them.
The impact of these texts was to move the emphasis away from the ‘hidden
from history’ approach and to open the door for women to interact with
architecture as non-professionals and non-modernists. It was a shift which, in
many ways, found more fertile ground in design history than in architectural
history as, in the former, the consumer, the amateur, the everyday, and the anti-
modernist were more fully developed. This was helped by design’s ‘newcomer’
status when viewed alongside architecture, as well as by its clear alliance with
popular culture. The close liaison that developed between cultural studies and
design history in the first half of the 1980s moved the latter discipline away from
the modernist paradigm and encouraged historians to think of designed artefacts
in new ways. Books such as Rozsika Parker’s The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery
and the Making of the Feminine provided innovative accounts of the relationship
between women and material culture, in this instance with goods embroidered at
home for the domestic sphere, taking a diametrically opposed approach to the
‘hidden from history’ texts.13 It opened the field for other accounts of feminine
material culture which was not modernist in emphasis. Other studies to have
extended this tradition include the area of sewing as well as studies such as
Cheryl Buckley’s Potters and Paintresses: Women Designers in the Pottery
Industry 1870–1990 which takes as its object of study the women in the English
pottery industry who were lowly paid workers involved in adding decoration to
pre-existing ceramic forms, the antipathy of modernist practice.14
By the mid-1980s it was clear that women’s relationships with architecture
and design were both complex and varied and that a deep analysis of the design
process and the resulting work could lead to a paradigm shift in the way in which
those material forms had hitherto been studied. Not only was it deemed
necessary to let alternative aesthetic preferences emerge, it was also considered
important to focus on the role of amateur producers and consumers. The
contribution of cultural studies was particularly influential in the power it
bestowed on the consumer/user. This was especially visible in design historical
work in which women who were defined as housewives, shoppers, hostesses and
a number of other domestic, unpaid roles, came to the fore. A number of essays
in Judy Attfield and Pat Kirkham’s edited book A View from the Interior—
among them Attfield’s ‘Inside Pram Town: A case study of Harlow house interiors,
1951–1961—bore witness to this new direction providing evidence of female
consumers’ responses to the environments they inhabited.15
This approach influenced work on the interior in which the notion of ‘identity’
came to be uppermost. The shift from an interest in the agency of the producer to
that of the consumer took longer to influence architectural history but was
fundamental to Alice T.Friedman’s 1998 study of the influence of female clients
on a number of iconic modernist buildings. Her book, Women and the Making of
the Modern House, was tellingly subtitled, A Social and Architectural History.16
 xiii

The book employed the categories of gender and consumption to show that the
selected women were not passive clients, that their preferences were not
necessarily in accord with those of the modernist architects with which they
worked, and that the clientconsumer was as much as producer as the architect.
Friedman’s problematisation of stereotypical views of gender, taste and
consumption was an important breakthrough for architectural history in this
context and has inspired work in this present volume.
The 1990s saw many books published in the fields of both architectural and
design history and theory which took all these themes forward and built upon
them. In the former the emphasis moved from the built structure to the concepts
of space and place which provided rich offerings and new perspectives. Beatriz
Colomina’s readings of space led the way and she added the concept of sexuality
to that of gender.17 The shift from architecture to space opened the door for a
much broader definition which included the effects of the media. Thus, a
continuum was created in architectural discourse which moved from the city to
the interior to the window to the represented image and the world created by the
mass media. The analyses that emerged positioned the concept of ‘meaning’
rather than production as the prime focus under the influence, once again, of
cultural studies. The concept of gender, defined in terms of the complex
meanings generated by the separation of, and ambiguities between, the separate
spheres, remained central to these analyses although now in a more integrated
way.
Within architectural theory the notion of ‘place’ became as preeminent as
space in the 1990s, the city in particular taking on a key significance in
discussions about modernity and postmodernity Inspired by the masculine
concept of the ‘flâneur’ in early modernism, architectural and social historians
sought to locate the ‘feminine’ in the modern cityscape. In her study of 1991—
The Sphinx in the City: Urban Life, the Control of Disorder, and Women—
Elizabeth Wilson equated women with the concept of ‘disorder’ showing how
notions of gender and sexuality have played a role in the formation of the spaces
of modern city life.18
A plethora of other approaches took the debate about gender, architecture and
design into new incarnations in the years leading up to 2000. Penny Sparke’s
text of 1995, for example, As Long as It’s Pink: The Sexual Politics of Taste set
out to show how modernism had displaced women who became linked with the
‘bad taste’ that was believed, by modernist protagonists, to reside within the
world of consumption and commerce and how ‘feminine culture’ provided,
throughout the twentieth century, an alternative set of taste values which, in spite
of their centrality to everyday life, were constantly being marginalised by ‘high
culture’.19 A number of other publications, among them Not at Home: The
Suppression of Domesticity in Modern Art and Culture, edited by Christopher
Reed, followed a similar line of argument showing how fundamental the
ideology of the separate spheres had been to twentieth-century cultural life.20
Victoria de Grazia and Ellen Furlough’s The Sex of Things: Gender and
xiv

Consumption in Historical Perspective and Pat Kirkham’s edited volume The

Gendered Object pursued a similar path, seeing the notion of gender as being
culturally embedded in objects which become its key communicators.21
Women’s Places can only exist because it recognises the importance of, and
extends, the vast body of work that has been sketchily outlined above. In
summary, the effort to reclaim forgotten female architects and designers was
supplemented by the attempt to find new methodologies arising from what was
found. In that attempt the authority of the producer and of the modernist project
was questioned and concepts and propositions such as the ‘separate spheres’, the
relativity of taste values, the authority of the consumer, and a postmodern
reading of spatiality, were focused upon as starting points for a deeper
investigation of the relationship between women and the material and spatial
environment they inhabit. This volume is also dependent on these concepts and
propositions although it seeks, through case studies, both to test and to question
them. The chapters have all maintained an openendedness in the face of the
material they have unearthed, anxious to let it speak for itself and suggest new
questions. At the same time, certain methodological conventions have been
maintained. Some of the work presented here, for example, reinvestigates well-
known ‘hidden from history’ women, Eileen Gray, for example. The aim here is
to look again with lessons learnt from other, less conventional studies. The work
of a number of key modernist architects, Gerrit Rietveld among them, is also
examined. Here the challenge is to look at it from another point of view, from
that of the female client, for example.
None of the women highlighted in these chapters are ‘ordinary’. They are all—
from Josephine Baker to Princess Louise to Elsie de Wolfe to Dora Gordine to
Elizabeth Denby to Marie Dormoy—‘extraordinary’ in a number of different
ways, whether because they were wealthy, unmarried, homosexual or unusually
independent for a number of other reasons. The aim is not, however, to elevate
them to the status of ‘heroines’ but rather to use them as examples of women
who actively engaged with architecture and/or design in the period in question
and who, in so doing, highlighted themes which increase our understanding of
the relationships of women with the built and designed environment more
generally. From these case studies, it is suggested, certain themes arise which can
inform the way in which we can approach this subject in the future. They include
the relationship of women to modernism; the importance of the interior as a
theatrical setting for women’s lives; the ways in which the idea of the ‘separate
spheres’ is continually negotiated and challenged; the relationship of ‘taste’ to
class and economic status; the links between amateurism and professionalism;
the role of sexuality; the relationship between identity, material culture, space
and place; the link, in women’s culture, between fashion, the decorative arts and
the interior; and many others besides.
 xv

The structure of the book

The structure of the book is dictated by chronology. The first two chapters,
Louise Campbell’s ‘Questions of identity: women, architecture and the Aesthetic
Movement’ and Trevor Keeble’s ‘Creating “The New Room”: the Hall sisters of
West Wickham and Richard Norman Shaw’, are both situated in the late
nineteenth century. They both feature British women acting as clients for
architectural and design projects, the first focusing on the sculpture studio of the
daughter of Queen Victoria, Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lome, created by
E.W.Godwin in 1878 and the studio-house of a well known illustrator, Kate
Greenaway, designed by Richard Norman Shaw, seven years later, while Keeble
provides an account, based on documentation presented in personal diaries, of
the Hall sisters’ commission to Richard Norman Shaw to create a room for them
in their middle-class house in West Wickham. Both chapters have a ‘hidden from
history’ element to them, not because new women professional architects have
been discovered, but rather that four female architectural clients have been found
who had a considerable input into the projects they commissioned. They also
make possible a modified reading of the Aesthetic Movement. All four women
had a strong sense of what they wanted and provided the architect with a high
level of guidance. Whether or not this was respected varies. Although separated
from each other by their different levels of wealth and reputation the three
commissions under discussion share some operational similarities. In all cases
women are working with male architects in the context of the private sphere of
the home. Both chapters point out the complex negotiations that were entered
into and the power struggles that ensued when everybody’s preferences were not
fully respected. In the case of Princess Louise, however, herself an artist, social
status guaranteed the level of her authority while Greenaway also held a position
of some status as a tastemaker in the context of Victorian society. Although both
women had a level of artistic control in the context of architectural commissions
they could not, Campbell tells us, be considered to be fully-fledged ‘artists’ by
the society they inhabited. The Hall sisters were unusual women, independent,
widely travelled and ‘collectors’ of artistic items. They were, nonetheless, clearly
not treated with the same level of respect by Shaw as Greenaway. He imposed
his taste upon the sisters, and, according to them, tried to overcharge them. In
their eyes he was not a gentleman, however highly he has been regarded by
architectural historians. Both chapters inform us about the significance of class,
wealth and social status for women who acted as commissioners of architecture
and design in the second half of the nineteenth century and the way in which the
professional male architect negotiated his level of authority accordingly. They
also provide a level of entry into the process of making architecture which is
frequently overlooked by historians, a perspective which comes to the fore
through the emphasis upon the female clients.
xvi

Chapter 3, written by Penny Sparke—‘Elsie de Wolfe and her female clients,

1905–1915: gender, class and the professional interior decorator’—takes us into
the twentieth century and across the Atlantic to the USA. The focus stays with
wealthy female clients but replaces the ‘gentleman’ architect with the newly-
professionalised, although untrained, female interior decorator in the person of
Elsie de Wolfe. Her personal background offers a link between fashionable
dress, theatre sets and the interior which remains in place for some decades. The
chapter’s main contribution to the volume lies in its documentation of an
aesthetic arena in which women worked with other women in a creative
collaboration (although the authority of the professional remains uppermost); its
demonstration of the way in which the birth of the professional, female decorator
working in the domestic arena served to blur the edges between the private and
the public spheres; its emphasis on the growing importance at that time between
women’s class and gender identities and their domestic interiors; and its
indication of the way in which, what Alison Light later calls a concept of
‘feminine modernity’, was beginning to emerge in the context of the domestic
interior.22 The chapter acts as a bridge between the premodern, Victorian taste
and social values of the late nineteenth century and the more fluid situation of the
inter-war years.
The architectural projects selected by Alice Friedman in Chapter 4, ‘Your
place or mine? The client’s contribution to domestic architecture’ to elucidate
her ideas about exceptional women (and men) in terms of their level of
independence, race and sexuality, span a chronological period from the 1920s to
the 1950s. Her analyses of the projects undertaken by Gerritt Rietveld and Truus
Schröder; the unrealised scheme created by Adolf Loos for Josephine Baker
(followed by Baker’s own choices of residences which included a medieval
château); and Paul Rudolph’s design for his own New York apartment are
offered to demonstrate the way in which these unconventional clients, or more
importantly the cultural categories which defined them, played a key role in the
architectural process. Developing ideas elucidated in her 1998 book, Friedman
demonstrates that architecture is not a result of a single creative figure working
in isolation but rather of negotiations rooted in the cultural context of gender,
race and sexuality.
The second half of the book focuses on the years between the two world wars.
Chapters 5 and 6—Lynne Walker’s, entitled ‘Eileen Gray, gender and
modernism’, and Tanis Hinchcliffe’s, ‘Marie Dormoy and the architectural
conversation’—concentrate on French case studies while Brenda Martin’s A
house of her own: Dora Gordine and Dorich House (1936); and Elizabeth
Darling’s ‘Elizabeth Denby or Maxwell Fry?: A matter of attribution’—focus on
subjects which are located in inter-war Britain.
Lynne Walker’s chapter takes a new look at that ‘modernist heroine’, Eileen
Gray, revisiting the way in which that designer’s work was added to the ‘canon’
from the early 1970s onwards. Walker demonstrates that, although Gray was
recognised by historians, Reyner Banham among them, as a significant modern
 xvii

architect/designer, she was both ignored in her own lifetime and has not yet been
adequately appraised subsequently. As Walker explains, ‘Eileen Gray’s strong
and systematic mind…has been overlooked and recast.’ Instead, she has been
‘feminised’, i.e., considered, primarily, as an architect of instinct and emotion’
rather than one of logic and order. Thus, while her work has been added to the
modernist canon, its intrinsic worth has not been fully recognised. Walker goes
on to explain that, while we have moved beyond the use of exclusively
modernist interpretations of her work and can now provide a more nuanced
account of it which considers gender and sexuality, we have to acknowledge
that, in the inter-war years, modernism provided an important platform on which
women such as Gray could express themselves.
Chapter 6 on the subject of Marie Dormoy introduces a new role for a woman
in this context, i.e., that of an ‘architectural witness’. Dormoy is an enigmatic
figure but her role as a writer and critic on architecture undoubtedly played a role
in the larger picture of Parisian architecture of the 1920s and 1930s. Her strong
links with Auguste Perret were especially significant. Hinchcliffe emphasises the
important role that social contacts played in her personal and professional life
and the fact that her life and work ‘provide insights into the social practice of
architecture in the early twentieth century’, i.e., activities which are further away
from the actual practice of architectural design itself but which nonetheless
impinge upon it. This contextualisation of architectural design is a key theme of
the work, demonstrating that while women may not have always been centre-
stage, they were very frequently in the wings, playing a role which influenced
the final outcome.
Returning to Britain, the last two chapters in the volume both pose questions
on which discussion is possible but for which no answers can be reached.
Martin’s question is whether or not the Russian emigrée sculptor, Dora Gordine,
designed Dorich House on Kingston Hill, which was built in 1936. The chapter’s
significance lies less in an answer to the question than in the way it discusses
architectural design as a process in which several people, in addition to abstract
contextual forces, play a part. As was the case with Princess Louise and Kate
Greenaway, Gordine’s artistic self-definition demanded that she participated in
the design of the environment in which she lived and worked and evidence is
supplied here to show what aesthetic decisions she probably made. Martin
focuses on the biography of Gordine in order to show the derivations of many of
her artistic ideas which found their way into architectural solutions. She also
provides a telling contrast between the architectural design for Gordine’s planned
studio in Hampstead, where the sculptor’s ideas came into conflict with those of
the modernist architect, Godfrey Samuel, who was commissioned to undertake
the project, and that of Dorich House where no architect was employed and
Gordine had a much freer hand.
The debate as to whether Maxwell Fry, the architect, or Elizabeth Denby the
self-styled ‘housing consultant’ should have been credited for, and given
‘ownership’ of, the design of a number of British housing projects of the 1930s,
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