WEEK NINE
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ORGANISMS
CONTENT
Courtship behavior in animals
Stages in development of toad
Metamorphosis in insects
Life histories of housefly and cockroach
COURTSHIP BEHAVIOURS IN ANIMALS
Courtship is a reproductive communication between males and females of a species
that ends in sexual union. Courtship behaviours in animals include
PAIRING: - A form of courtship in which a compatible male and female separate
themselves from other in a group to form a mating pair. Pairing occurs in human, toad,
fish, winged termites etc.
DISPLAY: - A process involving fixed pattern movements or attractive exhibitions and
responses between a male and a female which ends in mating. Examples of display
include croaking in toads, dancing, singing in human, production of odour by females,
stunning tail feathers of a peacock etc.
TERRITORIALITY: - A form of behavior in which a member of a specie marks out a fixed
area and defend it against intruders of the same species. Usually males establish
territories prior to mating. Territories are established by most vertebrates except
amphibians.
SEASONAL MIGRATION: - Seasonal movement of animals from one place to another in
connection with breeding, feeding and escaping unfavourable climatic conditions.
Termites, birds, fish etc exhibit seasonal migration.
STAGES IN DEVELOPMENT OF TOAD
In toad, an amphibian and a vertebrate, Courtship takes place during rainy season
when male toads make loud croaking noise to attract females which are swollen with
eggs. The male later climbs the female back, holding her firmly with the thick parts on
its thumbs. As the female lays her eggs, the male release its sperms on them (external
fertilization). The developmental stages after fertilization include
The egg stage: - the eggs laid are enclosed in strings of jelly which perform the
following roles: (i) Protecting the egg from mechanical damage (ii) Ensuring easy
access to oxygen for survival (iii) Preventing microbial attack (iv) Preventing the
egg from drying up
The zygote (fertilized egg) stage: After fertilization the zygote formed undergo
mitotic cell division for the embryo to emerge. The embryo gets its food from egg
yolk and dissolved oxygen through the jelly.
The young tadpole stage: The young tadpole emerges from the jelly after 1-2
days. The tadpole attaches itself to a water weed by a sticky substance secreted by
its v-shaped cement gland (from under its head) The tadpole feeds on egg yolk (no
mouth yet) and gets its dissolved oxygen through the skin .Developing eyes, ears
and nostrils are seen with marked portion for mouth.
The external gill stage: The young tad pole has a head, body and tail. Three
external gills are found on either side of the head. It develops horny jaws which are
used to feed on water weeds. The intestine is long and coiled with the cement gland
still present.
Internal gill stage: - 6-10 after hatching, the external gills disintegrate while the
internal gills develop .A gill cover called operculum grows over the gills. The tadpole
now breathes like a fish. Its tail elongates and muscles develop.
The limb stage: The hind limbs grow first and develop. The fore limbs then start to
grow out. The left fore limb appears first through the opercular opening followed by
the right forelimb. The internal gills gradually disintegrate while the lungs start
developing. The mouth develops and replaces the horny jaws. Intestine shortens
and the tad pole starts eating small animals in the water. The eyes become big and
prominent.
Young toad stage: - The tadpole reabsorbs the tail and then changes into small
toad. It comes out of the water to the land where it grows into a full adult toad.
Metamorphosis in toad (from egg to the adult toad) takes about 40-45 days under the
control of the hormone thyroxine produced by the thyroid gland (found between the
head and the trunk).
EVALUATION
List the stages in metamorphosis of toad.
Differentiate between external and internal gill stages of toad metamorphosis.
METAMORPHOSIS IN INSECTS
Metamorphosis is the gradual changes that occur during the development of an animal
from the zygote (fertilized egg) to the adult stage. There are two types of
metamorphosis in insects which include
complete metamorphosis
incomplete metamorphosis
Complete metamorphosis
This is the series of gradual changes which takes place in insects from fertilized eggs to
larva then to pupa and finally to the adult stage:
Egg -------- larva ------- pupa ------- adult
No resemblance between pupa and adult stage .Insect undergoing complete
metamorphosis include housefly, mosquito, butterfly, bees, wasps and beetles.
Incomplete metamorphosis
In this type of metamorphosis, the egg hatches into a nymph which generally resembles
the adult except that it is smaller, wingless and sexually immature.
Egg ------- nymph ------- adult
EVALUATION
What is metamorphosis
Name the stages involved in complete and incomplete metamorphosis
LIFE HISTORY OF HOUSEFLY
Housefly undergoes complete metamorphosis. Its life history involves: -
Egg stage: - 2 7 batches of eggs (100 150 eggs in a batch) are laid by the female
housefly in a moist dirty environment. The eggs hatch into white larvae in about 8
24 hours.
Larva stage: - The larva called maggot has a segmented body. The head bears a pair of
hook for tearing food and drawing the larva along. On the ventral surface of the
segmented body lie spiny pads for movement. It has two pairs of spiracles for
breathing. The larva moults several times and lasts for about 5 14 days after
which it moves to a dry place to begin the pupal stage.
Pupal stage: - The maggot shortens; its skin becomes hard and brown forming the
pupal case (puparium). It does not feed or move. Internal re-organisation takes
place at this stage. In about 3 10 days, the young adult hatches out of the
puparium.
Adult stage: - The adult housefly called imago emerges from the puparium using a sac-
like organ (ptilinum) to break it open. It moves to the surface of the dirt and flies
away when the wings are dry.
LIFE HISTORY OF COCKROACH
Cockroach undergoes incomplete metamorphosis. Its life history involves: -
Egg stage: - A female cockroach lays about 10 16 eggs in a horny egg case
(ootheca) which she carries in her abdominal pouch for some time and later deposit
it in a safe dark. After 30 100 days, the eggs hatch into nymphs which are
wingless, small and whitish in colour.
Nymph stage: - The nymphs feed, grow, become brown, moult about 13 times to
become adults.
Adult stage: - In the process of moulting, the wings first appear as wing pad and later
into full grown wings. A cockroach requires 11 20 months to develop from eggs to
imago.
EVALUATION
Describe briefly metamorphosis in a) cockroach b) housefly
GENERAL EVALUATION
Define metamorphosis
Describe the stages involved in the development of toad.
Define complete and incomplete metamorphosis in insects. Give two examples in
each case.
Differentiate between complete and incomplete metamorphosis.
Describe the life cycle of a named insect that undergoes complete
metamorphosis.
READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, Chapter 16, page 354 360, 370 - 373
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
The following insects undergo incomplete metamorphosis except (a) grasshopper (b)
cockroaches (c) butterfly (d) termite
The young tad pole feeds on -------- (a) small animals (b) water weed (c) egg yolk
(d) fish
Which of these is not a function of the string of jelly covering on eggs laid by toad
(a) nourish the embryo (b) protect eggs from microbial attack (c) protect eggs from
mechanical damage( d) protect eggs from drying up
Larvae of mosquito is called (a) caterpillar (b) grub (c) wriggler (d) imago
A common process that occurs in metamorphosis of insects is (a) moulting
(b) feeding (c) fertilization (d) dormancy
THEORY
Differentiate between metamorphosis in butterfly and termites
Differentiate between the external and internal gill stage of toads development
WEEK TEN
DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE IN FLOWERING PLANTS, GERMINATION OF SEEDS,
ADAPTIVE FEATURES IN A DEVELOPING ANIMAL
CONTENT
Fertilization and development of zygote in plants
Formation of seeds and fruits
Germination of seeds and condition necessary for germination
Adaptive features in a developing animal
Definition of oviparity, viviparity and ovoviviparity
DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE IN PLANTS
Pollination is followed by fertilization and the development of zygote in flowering plants
during which the flower changes into a fruit enclosing the seeds. The male and female
sex cells that form zygote at fertilization are the pollen grain and the ovule. The
following are the processes involved
After pollination - the pollen grain absorbs a sugary liquid on the stigma swells, and
germinates.
The outer coat of the pollen grain splits and the pollen tube grows out and down inside the
style.
The nucleus of the pollen grain divides into two a large tube nucleus and a smaller
generative nucleus .The male nucleus is the male gamete.
One of the male nuclei after their release into the embryo sac, fuses with the ovule
to form a zygote which develops into the embryo this is called first fertilization.
Second fertilization takes place when the second male nucleus fuses with the
secondary nucleus to form endosperm nucleus which produces the endosperm (food
store house of the embryo).
FORMATION OF SEEDS AND FRUIT (DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO)
The zygote divides by mitosis to form many cells which differentiate and become
organized into an embryo. The embryo is made up of the following parts:
the plumule (embryonic shoot) b. the radicle (embryonic root)
c. one or two cotyledon (seed leaves) d. endosperm (they could be absent )
As the embryo develops, the ovary and the ovules undergo changes and develop into
fruit and seed or seeds respectively.
SEED
A seed is defined as the ripen fertilized and developed ovule .The structure of the seed
have the following parts
seed coat This is the outer membrane of the seed
hilum is the point of attachment of the seed to the seed stock
Micropyle - The tiny hole through which air and water get into the embryo of the seed.
Embryo is the inner most part of the seed.
A seed with one seedling is called monocotyledon e.g. cereals such as maize, millet,
rice, sorghum, wheat etc. Those with two seed leaves are called dicotyledonous plant
e.g. mango, beans.
EVALUATION
(a) What is a seed (b) Describe the structure of a seed
Describe the stages involved in development of zygote in flowering plants
GERMINATION OF SEEDS
Germination is the process of gradual development of the embryo seed into the
seedling or the young plant. The embryo of the developed seeds usually undergoes a
rest period called dormancy and the seed remains in this condition as long as the
conditions for germination are unfavourable. There are two types of germination
Epigeal germination: - This is when the seedling emerging from the soil carries
the cotyledon above the soil surface e.g. dicotyledonous plant
Hypogeal germination: - This is when the seedling emerges from the soil with the
cotyledon left below the soil e.g. monocotyledonous plant.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR SEEDS GERMINATION
Adequate supply of water or moisture which helps to activate the soil and make the
seed coat soft for further development.
Oxygen is needed for respiration for the generation of energy needed for the growth of
the seed.
Optimum temperature
Enzymes are needed to speed up the rate at which the food is broken down to release
energy.
Food or energy (in dicot seed, the food is stored in the cotyledon while in monocot plant
the food is stored in the endosperm).
The seeds must be viable.
EVALUATION
What is germination?
What are the conditions necessary for germination of seeds
ADAPTIVE FEATURES IN DEVELOPING ANIMALS
EGGS OF FISH, AMPHIBIANS, REPTILES AND BIRDS
All vertebrates except mammals are egg laying animals. The egg has the following
features that help the embryo to develop inside it.
SHELL: - Hard, porous and rich in calcium carbonate. It protects the egg and aid
respiration.
MEMBRANES: - Also aid protection of the egg.
ALBUMEN: - It is called the egg white and accounts for over 50% of the egg. It nourishes
the embryo.
YOLK: - Located at the centre of the egg. It is rich in vitamins, protein and minerals to
nourish the embryos.
CHALAZA: - A piece of thick protoplasm that extends to both side of the yolk to hold the
embryo in position.
DEVELOPING EMBRYO/FOETUS IN MAMMALS
The embryo or foetus has the following adaptive features.
UTERUS: - Immediately after fertilization in the oviduct the embryo is planted in
the wall of the uterus.
PLACENTA: - the connection between the embryo and the mother in mammals.
It carries oxygen, water and food from the mother blood to the embryo blood.
It also removes excretory waste like urea, salt and carbon dioxide from the
embryos blood and transfers it to the mothers blood stream for elimination.
It produces hormones which helps the mother to adapt to the pregnancy.
UMBLICAL CORD: - It helps to attach the embryo to the placenta .The arteries and
vein of the cord carry the blood of the foetus to and from the placenta .The blood
of the mother and of the foetus are separated and so do not mix
EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES: - These membranes envelop the foetus to provide it
adequate protection .The membranes include
Amnion which is the innermost membrane filled with the amnoiotic fluid which
serves as a cushion or shock absorber for the embryo. The fluid also
neutralizes the effect of changes of external temperature.
Chorion is the outermost membrane which absorbs oxygen for the embryo.
Allantois is a membrane which aids respiration and excretion in developing
EVALUATION
Describe the structure of egg in birds.
What are the functions of placenta in mammals
DEFINITION OF OVIPARITY, VIVIPARITY AND OVOVIVIPARITY
OVIPARITY is a process of reproduction in which eggs are laid into the external
environment where the embryos complete their development and hatch out of the eggs
as young. Most fishes, amphibians, reptile and eggs undergo this type of reproduction.
VIVIPARITY is a process of reproduction in which the young develops and nourished
inside the females body through the placenta and are born alive when fully developed.
A few fishes, reptiles and all mammals are viviparous animals.
OVOVIVIPARITY takes place in few fishes and reptiles where the laid eggs are retained in
the body of the female without placenta and when fully develop the young hatch from
the eggs and are released from the females body.
EVALUATION
Differentiate between oviparity, viviparity and ovoviviparity.
GENERAL EVALUATION
Describe the process of zygote formation in flowering plants.
What is a seed
With a labeled diagram, describe a seed.
What is germination?
Define epigeal and hypogeal germination
What are the conditions necessary for seed germination
With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe the adaptive features of egg in birds
Differentiate between oviparity, viviparity and ovoviviparity giving one example in each
case.
READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 16, page 324 326, 382 - 387
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
The process by which fruits develop without fertilization is known as a) germination b)
pathenocarpy c) viviparity d) pollination
Which of these is not an oviparous animal a) goat b) pigeon c) lizard d) toad
A seed consists of the following parts except a) micropyle b) endosperm c) endocarp d)
hilum
An embryonic shoot in plant is known as a) radical b) plumule c) endosperm
d) cotyledon
The part of an egg that holds the embryo in position is the a) yolk b) albumen c) shell d)
chalaza
THEORY
Describe the structure and functions of the placenta in mammals.
Differentiate between hypogeal and epigeal germination
