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 C O S M I C R AY S A N D PA RT I C L E P H Y S I C S

Fully updated for the second edition, this book introduces the growing and dynamic
field of particle astrophysics. It provides an overview of high-energy nuclei, pho-
tons, and neutrinos, including their origins, their propagation in the cosmos, their
detection at Earth, and their relation to each other. Coverage is expanded to include
new content on high energy physics, the propagation of protons and nuclei in cos-
mic background radiation, neutrino astronomy, high-energy and ultra-high-energy
cosmic rays, sources and acceleration mechanisms, and atmospheric muons and
neutrinos. Readers are able to master the fundamentals of particle astrophysics
within the context of the most recent developments in the field. This book will
benefit graduate students and established researchers alike, equipping them with
the knowledge and tools needed to design and interpret their own experiments and,
ultimately, to address a number of questions concerning the nature and origins of
cosmic particles that have arisen in recent research.

T H O M A S K . G A I S S E R is Martin A. Pomerantz Professor of Physics at the Uni-

versity of Delaware. He is a Fellow of the American Physical Society and recipient
of the Alexander von Humboldt prize. His research at the Bartol Research insti-
tute in the Department of Physics and Astronomy includes cosmic-ray physics,
atmospheric neutrinos, and neutrino astronomy.

R A L P H E N G E L is a senior scientist at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

(KIT). He specializes in the application of high energy physics to problems
in particle astrophysics, focusing on the physics and detection of high-energy
and ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. He is an author of several simulation codes
commonly applied in cosmic ray physics.

ELISA RESCONI is a Heisenberg Professor of Physics at the Technical Univer-

sity Munich (TUM). Prof. Resconi’s research focuses on experimental physics with
cosmic particles at TUM’s Physics Department and Cluster of Excellence “Uni-
verse”, and includes studies of neutrinos in both astrophysics and particle physics.
Most noteworthy, Prof. Resconi has developed novel methods in the search for
cosmic neutrinos and their astrophysical sources, and in the fundamental study of
neutrino properties.

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 COS M I C R AY S A ND PA RTIC L E
P HYS IC S

THOMAS K. GAISSER
University of Delaware

RALPH ENGEL
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

ELISA RESCONI
Technical University Munich

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 University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521016469

c Cambridge University Press 2016
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2016
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Names: Gaisser, Thomas K., author. | Engel, Ralph, 1965– author. | Resconi,
Elisa, 1971– author.
Title: Cosmic rays and particle physics / Thomas K. Gaisser (University of
Delaware), Ralph Engel (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology), Elisa Resconi
(Technical University Munich).
Description: Second edition. | Cambridge, United Kingdom : Cambridge
University Press, 2016. |  c 2016 | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016003557 | ISBN 9780521016469 | ISBN 0521016460
Subjects: LCSH: Cosmic rays. | Particles (Nuclear physics) | Nuclear
astrophysics.
Classification: LCC QC485 .G27 2016 | DDC 523.01/97223–dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016003557
ISBN 978-0-521-01646-9 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.

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 Contents

Preface to the first edition page xi

Preface to the second edition xiii

1 Cosmic rays 1
1.1 What are cosmic rays? 1
1.2 Objective of this book 1
1.3 Types of cosmic ray experiment 3
1.4 Composition of cosmic rays 6
1.5 Energy spectra 7
1.6 Energy density of cosmic rays 10

2 Cosmic ray data 12

2.1 Lessons from the heliosphere 13
2.2 Measurements with spectrometers 17
2.3 Measurements with calorimeters 20
2.4 Spectrum of all nucleons 22
2.5 Indirect measurements at high energy 23
2.6 Primary composition from air shower experiments 28

3 Particle physics 30
3.1 Historical relation of cosmic ray and particle physics 30
3.2 The Standard Model of particle physics 32
3.3 Quark model of hadrons and hadron masses 41
3.4 Oscillation of neutral mesons 45
3.5 Electron–positron annihilation 47
3.6 Weak decays 49
3.7 QCD-improved parton model and high- pK processes 52
3.8 Concepts for describing low- pK processes 60

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 vi Contents

4 Hadronic interactions and accelerator data 65

4.1 Basics 65
4.2 Total and elastic cross sections 72
4.3 Phenomenology of particle production 84
4.4 Nuclear targets and projectiles 97
4.5 Hadronic interaction of photons 101
4.6 Extrapolation to very high energy 105

5 Cascade equations 107

5.1 Basic equation and boundary conditions 107
5.2 Boundary conditions 109
5.3 Energy loss by charged particles 110
5.4 Electrons, positrons and photons 111
5.5 Nucleons in the atmosphere 116
5.6 Hadrons in the atmosphere 119
5.7 The atmosphere 121
5.8 Meson fluxes 122

6 Atmospheric muons and neutrinos 126

6.1 Meson decay 126
6.2 Production of muons and muon neutrinos 129
6.3 Muons in the atmosphere 133
6.4 Relation to primary energy 135
6.5 Muon charge ratio 137
6.6 Neutrinos in the atmosphere 140
6.7 Non-power law primary spectrum and scaling violations 147

7 Neutrino masses and oscillations 149

7.1 Neutrino mixing 149
7.2 Oscillation in vacuum 153
7.3 Oscillation in matter 157
7.4 Neutrino mass hierarchy 159
7.5 Oscillation over astronomical distances 160

8 Muons and neutrinos underground 163

8.1 Passage of muons through matter 164
8.2 Atmospheric muons underground 166
8.3 Neutrinos underground 170
8.4 Prompt leptons 179
8.5 Seasonal variation of atmospheric muons and neutrinos 183

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 Contents vii

9 Cosmic rays in the Galaxy 186

9.1 Cosmic ray transport in the Galaxy 187
9.2 The Galaxy 189
9.3 Models of propagation 191

10 Extragalactic propagation of cosmic rays 204

10.1 Energy loss for protons and neutrons 205
10.2 Photodisintegration of nuclei 210
10.3 Secondary particle production 212
10.4 The role of magnetic fields 217

11 Astrophysical γ -rays and neutrinos 220

11.1 γ -rays from decay of π 0 220
11.2 Production of gamma rays by electron bremsstrahlung 224
11.3 Diffuse γ -rays from the Galactic plane 225
11.4 Neutrinos from the Galactic plane 228
11.5 Spectrum of electrons 230
11.6 Positrons 231
11.7 Cosmic rays and γ -rays in external galaxies 233

12 Acceleration 236
12.1 Power 237
12.2 Shock acceleration 237
12.3 Acceleration at supernova blast waves 243
12.4 Nonlinear shock acceleration 246
12.5 The knee of the cosmic ray spectrum 254
12.6 Acceleration to higher energy 255

13 Supernovae in the Milky Way 258

13.1 The Milky Way galaxy 258
13.2 Supernovae 263
13.3 The compact remnant: neutron stars and black holes 267
13.4 High-energy binary systems 270
13.5 Supernova remnants 271
13.6 Pulsar wind nebulae 278
13.7 Examples of supernova remnants 279

14 Astrophysical accelerators and beam dumps 282

14.1 Radiative processes in beam dumps 282
14.2 Active galactic nuclei 289
14.3 Gamma ray bursts 295

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 viii Contents

15 Electromagnetic cascades 302

15.1 Basic features of cascades 302
15.2 Analytic solutions in cascade theory 304
15.3 Approximations for total number of particles 309
15.4 Fluctuations 310
15.5 Lateral spread 311

16 Extensive air showers 313

16.1 Basic features of air showers 313
16.2 The Heitler–Matthews splitting model 315
16.3 Muons in air showers 316
16.4 Nuclei and the superposition model 320
16.5 Elongation rate theorem 323
16.6 Shower universality and cross section measurement 324
16.7 Particle detector arrays 326
16.8 Atmospheric Cherenkov light detectors 330
16.9 Fluorescence telescopes 334
16.10 Radio signal detection 337

17 Very high energy cosmic rays 341

17.1 The knee of the spectrum 342
17.2 Depth of shower maximum and composition 345
17.3 Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays 348
17.4 Sources of extragalactic cosmic rays 351
17.5 Future experiments 355

18 Neutrino astronomy 356

18.1 Motivation for a kilometer-scale neutrino telescope 357
18.2 From DUMAND to IceCube and beyond 358
18.3 Signals and backgrounds in a neutrino detector 359
18.4 Event types 362
18.5 Searching for point sources of neutrinos 363
18.6 Observation of astrophysical neutrinos 365
18.7 Sources of astrophysical neutrinos 368
18.8 Multi-messenger astronomy 372

Appendix 374
A.1 Units, constants and definitions 374
A.2 References to flux measurements 374
A.3 Particle flux, density and interaction cross section 375
A.4 Fundamentals of scattering theory 378

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 Contents ix

A.5 Regge amplitude 384

A.6 Glauber model of nuclear cross sections 386
A.7 Earth’s atmosphere 390
A.8 Longitudinal development of air showers 391
A.9 Secondary positrons and electrons 393
A.10 Liouville’s theorem and cosmic ray propagation 395
A.11 Cosmology and distance measures 397
A.12 The Hillas splitting algorithm 399

References 402
Index 441

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 Preface to the first edition

The connection between cosmic rays and particle physics has experienced a
renewal of interest in the past decade. Large detectors, deep underground, sam-
ple groups of coincident cosmic ray muons and study atmospheric neutrinos while
searching for proton decay, monopoles, neutrino oscillations, etc. Detector arrays
at the surface measure atmospheric cascades in the effort to identify sources of the
most energetic naturally occurring particles. This book is an introduction to the
phenomenology and theoretical background of this field of particle astrophysics.
The book is directed to graduate students and researchers, both experimentalists
and theorists, with an interest in this growing interdisciplinary field.
The book is divided into an introductory section and three main parts. The two
introductory chapters give a brief background of cosmic ray physics and particle
physics. Chapters 5 through 8 concern cosmic rays in the atmosphere – hadrons,
photons, muons and neutrinos. The second major part (chapters 9–13) is about
propagation, acceleration and origin of cosmic rays in the galaxy. Air showers and
related topics are the subject of the last four chapters.
I am grateful to many colleagues at Bartol and elsewhere for discussions
which have helped me learn about aspects of the field. I thank Alan Watson,
Raymond Protheroe, Paolo Lipari, Francis Halzen, David Seckel, Todor Stanev,
Floyd Stecker and Carl Fichtel for reading various chapters and offering helpful
suggestions.
I thank Leslie Hodson, Jack van der Velde, Jay Perrett and Sergio Petrera for
providing me with photographs to illustrate the book.

xi

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 Preface to the second edition

Interest and activity in particle astrophysics has continued to grow. It has now
been 25 years since publication of the first edition. A new edition is long over-
due, but nevertheless well-motivated in view of the growth of the field and several
important discoveries in the interim. The discoveries include flavor oscillations in
atmospheric and solar neutrinos, the cutoff of the spectrum of ultra-high-energy
cosmic rays, TeV gamma rays from supernova remnants in the Galaxy and from
distant active galaxies, an unexpected excess of positrons at high energy (but not
of anti-protons) and, most recently, high-energy astrophysical neutrinos.
The discoveries are the result of major investments in the development of new
instruments: the major underground experiments, Super-Kamiokande, SNO and
Borexino; the giant air shower arrays, Auger and Telescope Array; the imag-
ing atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes VERITAS, H.E.S.S. and MAGIC, and the
Fermi Satellite; the particle spectrometers in space, PAMELA and AMS-02, along
with balloon-borne detectors ATIC and CREAM; and the neutrino telescopes
AMANDA and Baikal, ANTARES and IceCube.
Corresponding developments on the side of particle physics stem from the
colliding beam machines at DESY, Fermilab and CERN. These have provided mea-
surements of parton distribution functions over an unprecedented kinematic range,
the discovery of the top quark and, most recently, the discovery of the Higgs boson.
The LHC is now running at a center of mass energy equivalent to 1017 eV in the
lab, well above the knee in the cosmic ray spectrum.
All of the discoveries mentioned have given rise to new questions that stimulate
continuing interest in particle astrophysics. In writing this expanded edition, we
have kept the basic structure of the first edition while adding chapters on new top-
ics stimulated by some of these open questions. Topics of the new chapters include
neutrino oscillations, propagation of ultra-high energy cosmic rays in the cosmic
microwave background, sources of the highest energy cosmic rays and neutrino

xiii

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 xiv Preface to the second edition

astronomy. The chapters on atmospheric muons and neutrinos, and those on accel-
eration and propagation of cosmic rays, go into greater depth and focus on new
results. Most important are the two chapters on particle physics, which are com-
pletely new, and are intended to bring the latest results from high-energy physics
to bear on cosmic ray physics.
We are grateful to many colleagues who, in one way or another, helped us to
understand and explain the material in this book.

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 1
Cosmic rays

1.1 What are cosmic rays?

Cosmic ray particles hit the Earth’s atmosphere at the rate of about 1000 per square
meter per second. They are ionized nuclei – about 90% protons, 9% alpha particles
and the rest heavier nuclei – and they are distinguished by their high energies.
Most cosmic rays are relativistic, having energies comparable to or somewhat
greater than their masses. A small but very interesting fraction of them have ultra-
relativistic energies extending up to 1020 eV (about 20 joules), eleven orders of
magnitude greater than the equivalent rest mass energy of a proton. The funda-
mental question of cosmic ray physics is, “Where do they come from?” and, in
particular, “How are they accelerated to such high energies?”
The answer to the question of the origin of cosmic rays is not yet fully known.
It is clear, however, that nearly all of them come from outside the solar system,
but from within the Galaxy. The relatively few particles of solar origin are char-
acterized by temporal association with violent events on the Sun and consequently
by a rapid variability. In contrast, the bulk of cosmic rays show an anti-correlation
with solar activity, being more effectively excluded from the solar neighborhood
during periods when the expanding, magnetized plasma from the Sun – the solar
wind – is most intense. The very highest energy cosmic rays have gyroradii in typ-
ical galactic magnetic fields that are larger than the size of the Galaxy. These may
be of extragalactic origin.

1.2 Objective of this book

The focus of this book is the interface between particle physics and cosmic rays.
The two subjects have been closely connected from the beginning, and this remains
true today. Until the advent of accelerators, cosmic rays and their interactions were
the principal source of new information about elementary particles. The discovery
in 1998 of evidence for neutrino oscillations using the neutrino beam produced by

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 2 Cosmic rays

interactions of cosmic rays in the atmosphere is reminiscent of the discoveries of

the positron, the muon, the pion and the kaon in the 1930s and 40s. Also, the highest
energy cosmic rays can still offer clues about particle physics above accelerator
energies, and searches for novel fundamental processes are possible, for example
with antiparticles in the cosmic radiation. For the most part, however, cosmic rays
are of interest now for the astrophysical information they carry, as reflected by the
modern term particle astrophysics.
There are important areas in which a knowledge of particle interactions is nec-
essary to understand the astrophysical implications of cosmic ray data. Examples
include:
● Production of secondary cosmic rays such as antiprotons by primary cosmic
rays when they collide with atomic nuclei in the interstellar medium. From the
relative amounts of such secondaries we learn about how cosmic rays propagate
through the interstellar medium and hence about the nature of the matter and
fields that make up the medium.
● Production of photons, neutrinos and other particles in collisions of cosmic rays
with material near a site of cosmic ray acceleration. Seeing point sources of such
particles is a way of identifying specific sources of cosmic ray acceleration and
studying how they work. Thus gamma ray astronomy and neutrino astronomy
are closely related to cosmic ray physics, and we will include some discussion
of these topics.
● Penetration of cosmic rays underground and the detection of muons and neu-
trinos in large, deep detectors. Such particles can be both signal (for example,
neutrinos from the point sources just mentioned) and background (for example,
for the search for proton decay or magnetic monopoles). Atmospheric neutri-
nos are of particular importance because of their use as a beam for the study of
neutrino oscillations.
● The relation between atmospheric cascades and the incoming cosmic rays that
produce them. The highest energy cosmic rays are so rare that they cannot be
directly observed with small detectors above the atmosphere, but must be studied
indirectly by large air shower arrays exposed for long periods at the surface.
Then one has to infer the nature of the primary from its secondary cascade.
● Searches for exotic particles and new interactions in the cosmic radiation.
These topics clearly have a great deal in common: the same equations that govern
particle cascades in the atmosphere of the Earth also describe particle production
by cosmic rays accelerated by a collapsed star which then collide in a surround-
ing supernova envelope or in the atmosphere of a nearby companion star. The
same cross sections that determine the neutrino-induced signal in an underground
detector also determine how much energy is absorbed by a companion star due to

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 1.3 Types of cosmic ray experiment 3

interactions of neutrinos produced by cosmic rays accelerated in the system. The

purpose of the book is to describe particle interactions in natural environments in a
common framework, to describe the detectors and their results, and to discuss the
conclusions that can be made about the primary cosmic radiation. The book also
includes a summary of cosmic ray origin – propagation, acceleration and sources.

1.3 Types of cosmic ray experiment

The principal data about the cosmic rays themselves, from which one can hope to
learn about their origin, are the relative abundances of the different nuclei (com-
position), the distribution in energy (energy spectrum) of each component and the
distribution of arrival directions. Comparison with the chemical composition of
various astrophysical objects, such as the Sun, the interstellar medium, supernovae
or neutron stars, can give clues about the site at which cosmic rays are injected
into the acceleration process. The energy spectra may be characteristic of certain
acceleration mechanisms.
Figure 1.1 gives a global view of the total cosmic ray energy spectrum. The
fluxes cover an enormous range of energy, from less than a GeV to more than
1020 eV: some twelve orders of magnitude. In addition, the flux falls rapidly with
energy, so it is necessary to plot the intensity on a log–log scale. Also, it is cus-
tomary to multiply the differential intensity by a power of energy. Here we plot
EdN {dE “ dN {d ln E. Since energy measurements generally have a precision
δ E, which is proportional to energy, E, this is a natural way to show the event rates
that would be expected in detectors that cover different ranges of energy. Often
one multiplies the flux by a higher power of energy. For example, E ˆ dN {d ln E
is analogous to the spectral energy density, ν Fpνq, in multiwavelength astron-
omy, which shows the energy content per logarithmic interval of energy and thus
reflects the physics of the source. Still higher multiplicative powers (E 2.5 , E 3 ) are
sometimes used simply to flatten a steeply falling spectrum to look for structure.
A moment’s thought about the range of rates in Figure 1.1 will convince you that
several quite different kinds of detectors are necessary to study cosmic rays over
this whole energy range. In the interval around 100 GeV, for example, the cosmic
ray flux is approximately two particles per square meter per steradian per second.
This means that magnetic spectrometers with acceptance of order 0.1 m´2 sr´1 can
collect a few thousand events in a day, which is sufficient to measure the spectra of
protons and helium up to this energy but not much higher.
A detector system that includes a magnetic spectrometer to bend charged parti-
cles can make the most precise measurement of the particle momentum. The left
panel of Figure 1.2 shows how the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) identifies
an electron and measures its momentum from a precise measurement of bending in

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 4 Cosmic rays

protons
Grigorov all particle
CREAM all particle
Akeno
MSU
Tibet
100 KASCADE
KASCADE-Grande
IceTop73
HiRes1&2
TA2013
Auger2013
E dN / dE dΩ dA dt (m−2sr−1s−1)

Model H4a

10−5

10−10

10−15

100 102 104 106 108 1010 1012

E (GeV / particle)

Figure 1.1 Global view of the cosmic ray energy spectrum. The triangles from
1 GeV to 10 TeV give the measured flux of protons. All other data and the model
line represent the spectrum of the sum of all nuclei as a function of total energy
per nucleus. See Appendix A.2 for references.

the tracking planes inside the magnet. The transition radiation detector (TRD) at the
top identifies the particle as an electron and the time of flight (TOF) counters mea-
sure the velocity and show that the particle is downward. The TOF scintillators also
measure the charge of the particle using the Z 2 dependence of the ionization. The
ring imaging Cherenkov (RICH) detector independently determines charge and
velocity. Finally, the electron generates a shower in the electromagnetic calorime-
ter (ECAL) at the bottom confirming its identity and providing an independent
measurement of its energy. The maximum energy achievable with a spectrometer
is limited by its tracking resolution (which determines the maximum detectable
radius of curvature) and by the size of the fiducial region of the magnetic field,

Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Exeter, on 07 Mar 2017 at 11:08:34, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at
https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139192194.003
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