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Francesca Ervas, Elisabetta Gola, Maria Grazia Rossi (Eds.)
Metaphor in Communication, Science and Education
Applications of
Cognitive Linguistics

Editors
Gitte Kristiansen
Francisco J. Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez

Honorary editor
René Dirven

Volume 36
Metaphor
in Communication,
Science and Education

Edited by
Francesca Ervas
Elisabetta Gola
Maria Grazia Rossi
ISBN 978-3-11-054748-1
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-054992-8
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-054812-9
ISSN 1861-4078

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress.

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2017 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Typesetting: PTP-Berlin, Protago-TEX-Production GmbH, Berlin
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck
♾ Printed on acid-free paper
Printed in Germany

www.degruyter.com
Table of contents
Francesca Ervas, Elisabetta Gola and Maria Grazia Rossi
How embodied cognition still matters to metaphor studies | 1

Part I: Theoretical perspectives

Zoltán Kövecses
Metaphor and metonymy in folk and expert theories of emotion | 29

Tony Veale
Metaphor and Metamorphosis | 43

Amitash Ojha, Bipin Indurkhya and Minho Lee

Is language necessary to interpret visual metaphors? | 61

Valentina Cuccio and Sabina Fontana

Embodied Simulation and metaphorical gestures | 77

Part II: Communication

Kathrin Fahlenbrach
Audiovisual metaphors and metonymies of emotions and depression in moving
images | 95

Elena Negrea-Busuioc
Leading the war at home and winning the race abroad: Metaphors used by
President Obama to frame the fight against climate change | 119

Larisa Iljinska, Marina Platonova and Tatjana Smirnova

Secret codes of metaphor: Anatomy of architecture | 135

Micaela Rossi
Some observations about metaphors in specialised languages | 151
vi Table of contents

Part III: Science

Silvano Tagliagambe and Luca Guzzardi

Classical physics as a metaphorical tool for evoking quantum world | 171

Carmela Morabito
Integration and differentiation at the basis of metaphor: Dexterity in behaviour
and degeneracy in the nervous system | 189

Giulia Frezza and Elena Gagliasso

Building metaphors: Constitutive narratives in science | 199

Clara Inés López-Rodríguez and Maribel Tercedor-Sánchez

Identification and understanding of medical metaphors by non-experts | 217

Part IV: Education

Graham Low
Eliciting metaphor in education research: Is it really worth the effort? | 249

Susanne Niemeier
Teaching (in) metaphors | 267

Susan Nacey and Bård Uri Jensen

Metaphoricity in English L2 learners’ prepositions | 283

John C. Wade
Metaphor and the shaping of educational thinking | 305

Index | 321
Francesca Ervas, Elisabetta Gola and Maria Grazia Rossi
How embodied cognition still matters to
metaphor studies
1 Embodiment and metaphor theory
In recent decades, the ideas developed within the framework of embodied cogni-
tion have strongly influenced the understanding of the nature of reasoning and
communication (Lakoff and Johnson 1999; Gibbs 2006). The idea of language and
reasoning as logic-formal systems that process abstract symbols has received
strong criticism from cognitive linguistics and psychology of reasoning (Evans
and Frankish 2009; Kahnemann 2003). There seems to be no real point of return
to Cartesian dualistic models of reasoning. The importance of metaphor in the
process of knowledge construction is widely recognised in the field of cognitive
science, as metaphors contribute to model our way of thinking and in building
bridges between abstraction and perception (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 1999).
There indeed exists a strong relationship between metaphor and communica-
tion processes, including comprehension and learning. In metaphor studies, the
pivotal work of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980) has drawn fully from the
ideas of embodied cognition model demonstrating how language is rooted in the
way we structure our bodily experience and hence conceptualise life.
Since Lakoff and Johnson, different meanings have been evinced to the
concept of “embodied”. An ever growing literature on embodiment has proposed
different views, from the physiological to the cultural, the neural to the social
(Lakoff and Johnson 1999; Kövecses 2005; Svensson and Ziemke 2004). As pointed
out by Manuela Romano and Maria Dolores Porto (2016: 4), after a “first genera-
tion” of scholars focus “on the bodily, material basis of cognition and language”,
a “second generation” of scholars extended the notion of embodiment to include
the social and cultural basis of our conceptual and linguistic structures (Rohrer
2006, 2007). Given the various dimensions (linguistic, neural, intercultural, soci-
ological, etc.) of embodiment, the need for an interdisciplinary approach to the
problem of embodied cognition has been emphasized. The object of this research
field focused, therefore, on embodiment with a pluridimensional approach. This
was open to comparison with theoretical proposals and results reached by every
discipline that studies the meaning of “embodied”.

Francesca Ervas, University of Cagliari

Elisabetta Gola, University of Cagliari
Maria Grazia Rossi, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart
DOI 10.1515/9783110549928-001
2 Francesca Ervas, Elisabetta Gola and Maria Grazia Rossi

Nonetheless, this intrinsic polysemy of embodiment and the consequent

interdisciplinarity of approaches has often constituted the main reason for dif-
ficulty. For instance, Margaret Wilson (2002), by reviewing six views of embodi-
ment, points out that the diversity of claims in the field is quite problematic. With
the same intention of disentangling different claims and concepts in the field,
Tom Ziemke (2003) presents six different notions of embodiment: 1) structural
coupling between agent and environment, 2) historical embodiment as a result of
a history of agent-environment interaction, 3) physical embodiment, 4) organis-
moid embodiment, i.e. organism like bodies (e.g. humanoid robots), 5) organis-
mic embodiment of autopoietic, living systems, and 6) social embodiment. There-
fore, by trying to define embodiment, and by analysing the concepts involved
in its definition, various approaches have produced a misleading multitude of
terminologies (e.g. also “situatedness”, cf. Zlatev 1997; Linblom and Ziemke
2002, or “sociocultural cognition”, cf. Sharifian 2011, 2015; Frank et al. 2008).
As a result the greatest difficulty seems to be the definition of the object itself:
understanding what “embodiment” is and what “embodied” means (Zlatev 1997;
Rohrer 2006, 2007; Ziemke and Frank 2007; Ziemke et al. 2007; Frank et al. 2008).
As pointed out by Zouheir Maalej and Ning Yu (2011) a good starting point
is the definition of embodiment by Tom Ziemke and Roslyn Frank (2007: 1) as
“the bodily and sensorimotor basis of phenomena such as meaning, mind, cogni-
tion and language”. Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 1999) present a notion of embodi-
ment that puts together the four phenomena (meaning, mind, cognition and
language), by focusing on metaphor and its role in people’s understanding of
language. Lakoff and Johnson’s conception of embodiment deeply influenced the
landscape of metaphor studies and prevailed over other trends, which especially
aimed at analysing and explaining the role of metaphor in communication, more
than in language and cognition. However, despite according great importance
to the communicative dimension of metaphor, Lakoff and Johnson’s theory con-
flated communication with both language and cognition, maintaining that it
could be fully explained by the linguistic and (even more) by the embodied roots
of metaphor.
However, in the meantime, an alternative view to Lakoff and Johnson (1980)
has been proposed by a number of studies on metaphor from the field of applied
linguistics (Cameron and Low 1999; Low and Cameron 2002; Cameron 2003;
Deignan 2005, 2010; Charteris-Black 2004; Caballero Rodriguez 2006; Koller
2004), cognitive linguistics (Cienki, Luka, and Smith 2001; Cienki and Müller
2008; Müller 2008; Grady 2000; Kövecses 2005), conversation and discourse anal-
ysis (Musolff 2004; Semino 2008; Steen et al. 2010), interactional sociolinguistics
(Drew and Holt 1998), artificial intelligence (Barnden 2008), psycholinguistics
(Katz et al. 1998; Giora 2003; Glucksberg 2001, 2008; Gibbs 1994, 1999, 2006),
 How embodied cognition still matters to metaphor studies 3

and psychology of discourse (Kintsch 1998; Steen 2004, 2006; Van Dijk 2008;
Macnamara and Magliano 2009; Graesser and Millis 2011). These perspectives
have showed that the peculiar communicative dimension of metaphor cannot be
conflated or reduced to the linguistic and conceptual aspects of metaphor (Steen
2008, 2011; Gola and Ervas 2016).
The aim of this book is to present an overview of some recent trends in meta-
phor studies which – departing from the standard embodied cognition frame-
work – propose new directions of research or further developments/improve-
ments of the embodied cognition perspective, which could give an explanation
of the specific traits of the communicative aspects of metaphor. The theme of the
volume is thus at the crossroads of the wide range of ways metaphor is theorised
and used in the communicative contexts of the real world. The volume devotes
particular attention to the fields of science and education. The book consists of
a selection of papers presented at the Conference Metaphor in Communication,
Science and Education, the 10th International Conference of the Association for
Researching and Applying Metaphor (RaAM), held at the University of Cagliari
(Italy) in June 2014.
The collection is divided into four sections. The first section, “Theoretical
Perspectives”, introduces new trends in the embodied cognition perspective
applied to metaphor studies. The chapters present different theoretical perspec-
tives, ranging from computational to neuroscientific approaches, on how the
embodied cognition model should be defended or improved in order to better
fit an adequate and comprehensive explanation of both visual and verbal meta-
phors. The second section, “Communication”, specifically focuses on the com-
municative aspects of metaphor in different fields, such as cinema, politics, and
architecture. Even though embracing the standard embodied cognition para-
digm presupposed by the conceptual theory of metaphor, the chapters included
in this section suggest that the communicative dimension of metaphor has spe-
cific features and functions that disallow complete reduction to its linguistic and
cognitive dimensions.
The third section, “Science”, investigates the role of metaphors in proposing
a structure and categorisation of scientific knowledge as well as in exploring new
meanings and models. Indeed, as metaphors are possibly useful, and sometimes
indispensable, to describe things in everyday communicative situations, they
prove to be also powerful devices in generating insights and promoting under-
standing in scientific enquiry. The chapters included in the section show why
metaphors play such an essential role in theory-making, both suggesting inter-
esting questions and fruitful ideas and using specific communicative devices to
allow non-experts’ comprehension. The fourth section, “Education”, considers
the large use of metaphor in teaching almost every type of knowledge in both
4 Francesca Ervas, Elisabetta Gola and Maria Grazia Rossi

human and natural sciences. The chapters included in the section aim to explore
the role metaphors play in education, for instance, reaching a better understand-
ing of a concept or generating new ideas, by anchoring abstract concepts to stu-
dents’ bodily experience. In order to do this – the authors argue – metaphors
need to have specific communicative traits which emerge in teacher/learner or in
peer to peer communication in educational contexts.

2 Theoretical perspectives
Recent theoretical research in metaphor studies has proposed new ways to criti-
cise and/or rehabilitate the embodied roots of metaphor. Starting from different
methodological approaches and traditions, the chapters included in this section
focus attention on specific theoretical areas of metaphor studies to draw, at least
in part, some conclusions on the embodied aspects of metaphor.
In the chapter Metaphor and metonymy in folk and expert theory of emotions,
Zoltan Kövecses defends Lakoff and Johnson’s theory of conceptual metaphors
against criticism of groundlessness by discourse-oriented metaphor scholars
(see, e.g., Cameron and Maslen 2010). In particular, the author aims to show
that not only folk theories but also expert theories are grounded on conceptual
metaphor based on our bodily experience of emotions. Both folk and expert theo-
ries extensively make use of metaphors to better understand emotions’ nature
and functioning. More specifically, folk theories can be described with reference
to conceptual metaphors (e.g. pride is a fluid in a container, to be proud
is to be big/up/high) based on underlying metonymies (e.g. erect posture/
head held high for pride, chest (thrust) out for pride). The author shows
various examples supporting the view that many metaphorical source domains
are common to both folk and expert theories of emotions. In this respect, the case
of emotions as fluids inside a container is a prime example: for instance, Kövec-
ses supports the thesis that Davitz’s (1969) technical notion of “enhancement”
(i.e. the phenomenon of reporting experiences related to pride such as “I feel
taller/stronger/bigger/strong inside”) is based upon the fluid in a container
metaphor.
Kövecses examines some implications of this thesis for the applied linguis-
tic view of metaphors by discussing the role of conceptual metaphor in human
thought. In support of this claim, the author argues that conceptual metaphors
are creative instruments of thought: the way in which experts modify and develop
folk theories of emotions is brought as an evidence of the cognitive role played by
conceptual metaphors within the emotional domain. However, in claiming that
 How embodied cognition still matters to metaphor studies 5

both folk and expert theories of emotion share certain conceptual metaphors,
Kövecses adopts an account of metaphors somewhat different from the “stan-
dard” Lakoff and Johnson’s account (Lakoff and Johnson 1999), where primary
metaphors are embodied. In this chapter, the author argues that first there must
be a metonymic stage in the development of metaphors (Kövecses 2013), because
only conceptual metonymies reflect real or assumed responses associated with
emotions, which can be generalised into concepts as appropriate source domains
for both layman and expert theories.
In the chapter Metaphor and Metamorphosis, Tony Veale adopts a computa-
tional approach to metaphor. Veale shows that even an automatic non-human
and non-embodied system (Flux Capacitor) can generate stories in which
metaphors are used in creative ways, but the inputs of the system are human
knowledge. Indeed, in order to generate stories, Flux Capacitor needs a corpus
of texts that represents a rich knowledge base of our stereotypical perspectives
on humans: for instance, the most prominent qualities exhibited by teachers,
criminals, nuns, etc. and their most natural direction of change. For example, the
system finds it more likely for a prostitute to become a nun rather than the case of
a nun who breaks bad in the reverse direction. In order to transform this informa-
tion into a story and to understand the emergent qualities that may arise along
the way, the system adopts the model of conceptual blending (Fauconnier and
Turner 1998, 2002), translated into a robust and scalable computational model
(conceptual mash-up) by Veale (2012).
The stories generated by the Flux Capacitor are based on a set of purposeful
actions shaped in the schema Source-Path-Goal (SPG), which is one of the central
conceptual patterns acting as source domain in primary metaphors (Johnson
1987; Lakoff and Johnson 1980). For instance, when we say that “We are moving
forward in our research”, we are imagining research as a path in which moving
forward is making some progress. Storytelling is an activity that responds to the
same SPG schema, i.e. a purposeful activity with a beginning (Source), middle
(Path), and an end (Goal). An example proposed by Veale is the sequence: “The
general who became a slave. The slave who became a gladiator. The gladiator who
defied an emperor”.
The effectiveness of the generated story has been tested through a twitterbot
(@MetaphorMagnet), which employs the Flux Capacitor to generate mini-narra-
tive (story, metaphors, or story based on metaphors) of 140 characters in 5 steps.
The start and the end of the story are represented with hashtags, as in the follow-
ing example:
6 Francesca Ervas, Elisabetta Gola and Maria Grazia Rossi

#Knight=#Madman
1. Go on a crusade
2. Become a knight
3. Launch irrational crusades
4. Become an irrational knight
5. Get called a “madman”

There is a notable benefit of implementing the system as a Twitterbot, because

you can evaluate the degree to which typical users find system’s outputs to be
meaningful depending on the number of likes, shares, comments, etc. Veale also
submitted the short stories to “official” evaluators and paid volunteers. They were
asked to rate the stories on the basis of comprehensibility, novelty, and retweet-
ability. The results from such evaluation can be considered very satisfactory:
even though Flux Capacitor is not able to write a new masterwork like Metamor-
phosis, the metaphors and blending mechanisms produce stories that turn out to
be plausible without being either obvious or deterministic. As the author notes,
“This, after all, is the real power of metaphor: to entice the imagination, to create
sparks from the collision of superficially ill-matched ideas, and to lure us toward
a satisfying resolution” (Veale in this volume, p. 58).
Amitash Ojha, Bipin Indurkhya and Minho Lee indicate precisely the imagi-
native route as an alternative way to revise the standard embodied cognition pre-
supposed by Lakoff and Johnson’s theory of conceptual metaphor. In the chapter,
Is language necessary to interpret visual metaphors?, they argue that Lakoff and
Johnson (1980) consider metaphor as a conceptual phenomenon, whilst other
theories of metaphor comprehension (Gibbs and Bogdanovich 1999; Walsh 1990;
Neisser 1976) suggest that various cognitive processes, which are not conceptual
in nature, are in place in metaphor comprehension. An interaction between differ-
ent verbal and non-verbal, conceptual and non-conceptual modalities are indeed
required to understand metaphors. The chapter considers visual metaphors,
which are normally held to require perception processes rather than verbal pro-
cesses. Even the interpretation of some verbal metaphors requires mental images
that can produce perception-like experiences. Brain-imaging studies have shown
that the right-hemisphere brain areas, associated with perception, imagery, and
motor planning, are activated by verbal metaphor comprehension, and that the
right hemisphere plays an important role in the integration of various modalities
during verbal metaphor comprehension (Anaki, Faust, and Kravetz 1998; Faust
and Mashal 2007; Arzouan, Goldstein, and Faust 2007; Rapp et al. 2004; Ahrens
et al. 2007; Shibata et al. 2007).
Ojha, Indurkhya, and Lee explore the case of visual metaphors, which Lakoff
and Johnson (1980) considered visual manifestations of conceptual metaphors,
 How embodied cognition still matters to metaphor studies 7

to understand whether they evoke verbal and language areas to be interpreted. In

order to do this, the authors adopt an experimental approach and present an fMRI
study, which allows to display the active brain areas during visual metaphor com-
prehension without any interference with verbal responses. They aim to clarify
to what extent the right hemisphere, which specialises in holistic, imagistic, and
spatial processing (Bryden 1982; Ellis, Young, and Anderson 1988; Jonides et al.
1993; McCarthy et al. 1994), plays a role in visual metaphor comprehension. In the
experimental study four different kinds of stimuli were presented to participants:
(1) literal sentences, (2) metaphorical sentences, (3) literal images and (4) meta-
phorical images. The objective was to understand whether language areas are
activated during visual metaphor comprehension, and to identify the neural dif-
ferences and similarities in both verbal and visual metaphor processing.
The results show that, in the interpretation of metaphorical images, a sig-
nificant activation of language comprehension areas, such as Broca’s and Wer-
nicke’s areas, has been observed. On the contrary, no significant activity in these
areas has been observed in the literal-image comprehension task. These find-
ings confirm that the comprehension process of visual metaphors requires the
activation of areas traditionally regarded as responsible for auditory perception,
speech, and language comprehension. Moreover, comparing the brain activation
patterns for visual and verbal metaphors, no exclusive right-hemisphere (RH)
deployment in the processing of visual metaphors has been observed. On the
contrary, some common activation areas for both verbal and visual metaphors
conditions show that visuo-spatial imagery is required for both visual and verbal
metaphors. The authors conclude that the role of other modalities than verbal
and conceptual, such as visual, aural, and gestural, need to be further investi-
gated, in order to develop a more comprehensive cognitive model of both verbal
and visual metaphor comprehension.
The chapter by Valentina Cuccio and Sabina Fontana, Embodied Simula-
tion and metaphorical gestures, specifically focuses on gestural modalities and
adopts the Embodied Simulation approach to defend the idea that the processing
of bodily metaphors, such as “to see an idea” or “to grasp a concept”, based on
bodily experiences, determines the activation of the sensory and motor systems.
Embodied Simulation has been defined as the activation of neural circuits in the
absence of a corresponding action, perception, or emotion (Gallese and Sinigaglia
2011). For instance, in the case of emotional literal descriptions, the processing
of verbs describing facial expressions, e.g. “to smile”, determines the activation
of the muscles involved in the real occurrence of those facial expressions (Foroni
and Semin 2009). In the case of metaphorical descriptions, the processing of a
metaphorical expression, e.g. “John grasps the idea”, determines the activation
of hand-related areas of the motor cortex. In this regard, recent neuroscientific
8 Francesca Ervas, Elisabetta Gola and Maria Grazia Rossi

findings support the claim that our bodily experience directly contributes to met-
aphor comprehension by means of the Embodied Simulation mechanism (Gibbs
2003, 2006; Matlock, Ramscar and Boroditsky 2005; Gibbs and Matlock 2008;
Gibbs and Perlman 2010; Ritchie 2010; Semino 2010).
It is worth questioning whether Embodied Simulation is also triggered by the
observation of representational actions, which though do not have a direct effect
on the physical environment but shape our abstract experiences and concepts
and affect our communicative exchanges. Recent studies have shown that the
observation of people’s gestures results in the activation of the observer’s motor
system (Ping, Goldin-Meadow and Beilock 2014; Cartmill, Beilock and Goldin-
Meadow 2012). In this perspective, Cuccio and Fontana develop a new defini-
tion of simulation mechanism to analyse the role of Embodied Simulation in the
understanding of metaphorical gestures. In their view, the bodily-centred mecha-
nism of Embodied Simulation and the gesture system are not two different dimen-
sions of embodiment, suggesting that Embodied Simulation and co-speech ges-
tures are a unitary system (Cuccio 2015a, 2015b). Following McNeill (1992, 2005),
Cuccio and Fontana intend gestures as a support for both thought and speech,
as their internal structure is composed of different units: conceptual and neuro-
muscular. In the case of metaphorical gestures, gestures support the mapping of
abstract concepts into concrete domains. In this regard, gestures are the visible
expression of the inner mechanism of embodied simulation that shapes our rep-
resentations.
Finally, the first section – specifically dedicated to theoretical perspectives
on embodied cognition in metaphor studies – displays a range of different but
interconnected theoretical positions. The chapters, in this volume, show the need
for defending the classical view of conceptual metaphor theory (see Kövecses),
extending it (see Veale), integrating it by exploring the imaginative route to meta-
phor understanding (see Ojha, Indurkhya and Lee) or revising it, following recent
studies in the Embodied Simulation mechanism involved in metaphor processing
(see Cuccio and Fontana). The following sections specifically focus on communi-
cation and the communicative functions of metaphor in different fields where the
embodied cognition framework has been applied: science and education.

3 Communication
The section on “Communication” considers the effects of the embodied cognition
framework on the study of the communicative aspects of metaphors. Exploring
the use of metaphors in different communicative fields, such as cinema, politics,
 How embodied cognition still matters to metaphor studies 9

and architecture, and going back to the origins and development of specialised
terminologies, the section aims to question whether the standard embodied cog-
nition framework adopted by the conceptual theory of metaphor can effectively
explain the specific traits of the communicative aspects of metaphors.
The chapter by Kathrin Fahlenbrach, Audiovisual metaphors and metony-
mies of depression, analyses how conceptual transfer works in different kinds
of audiovisual products. The author describes and explains the audiovisual
language and the nature of specific audiovisual metaphors generated by these
media. In particular, she compares two very different kinds of audiovisual
genres: the informative and the fictional. In both cases creators of audiovisual
media products draw on conceptual metaphors to communicate complex net-
works of conceptual metaphors, gestalt patterns, sounds, images, and move-
ments, which contribute to create perceptive, cognitive, and affective meanings.
The chapter outlines the way in which this happens, by examining ten videos in
three steps: analysis of the communicative framing, identification of metaphori-
cal and metonymic mappings, implementation in audiovisual motifs and com-
positions. Adopting Kövecses’ (2002, 2005) approach to emotions and concep-
tual metaphors, the author analyses videos that specifically focus on depression.
The results show that similar audiovisual metaphors of depression are generated
in both informative and fictional videos, but informative videos use a clear-cut
metaphoric scenario in order to be quickly understood by the general public,
while fictional videos perform a much more complex metaphoric display of
depression, which is also different depending on specific cultural and cinematic
knowledge of the viewers.
In the chapter Leading the war at home and winning the race abroad: Meta-
phors used by President Obama to frame the fight against climate change, Elena
Negrea-Busuioc examines some aspects of the debate on climate change, that has
become pressing in the last decades. In particular, the author analyses metaphors
in a political speech by President Obama, focusing on two metaphorical scenar-
ios used to address the emergency of fighting climate change: the war (at home)
and the race (abroad). The analysis, which follows the Pragglejaz group proce-
dure (Pragglejaz Group 2007) for metaphor identification, aims, on one hand, to
examine the way in which responsibility in fighting climate change is metaphori-
cally assigned to America and, on the other, to exploit the underlying persuasive
potential of metaphors politicians rely on.
Two metaphorical scenarios (war and race) are used to conceptualise the
fight against climate change, but, also, at the same time, to exploit the com-
municative functions of these scenarios. In discourses on the climate change,
for example, Barack Obama uses the war metaphor, while addressing Ameri-
cans, but switches to a “race abroad” that America must win while considering
10 Francesca Ervas, Elisabetta Gola and Maria Grazia Rossi

the global audience. In this way he on one hand legitimises actions on climate
change and on the other hand consolidates the position of the U.S. as a world
leader. The use of race metaphors, in addition to war, seems to be “required” to
account for multiple audience (Ritchie and Cameron 2014). The author concludes
that such metaphors, thanks to their communicative features, play a crucial role
in mapping climate change onto more familiar and tangible aspects of human
everyday life.
Larisa Iljinska, Marina Platonova, Tatjana Smirnova, in the chapter Secret
codes of metaphor: Anatomy of architecture, focus their attention on the mecha-
nism of metaphorical meaning extension in working language. They present a
study, part of an ongoing research on contemporary theories on professional lan-
guage and knowledge representation in scientific and technical communication.
In order to examine how meaning can be extended and how much it depends
on the linguistic level, the authors analyse terms based on a definite conceptual
metaphor – building is a body – in three working languages: English, Latvian,
and Russian. Following Lakoff (1993), conceptual metaphors here are considered
the basis for both novel, creative metaphorical expression, and conventional pat-
terns of expression. More “alive” (novel and creative) metaphors are also more
dependent on imagination. Starting from these premises, the authors show that
the role of metaphorisation is significant in professional communication, in
which metaphoric terms expand the scope of information, widening the meaning
of the existing lexical units. This is a process, particularly evident in English, in
which there is a proliferation of polysemic words in scientific and technical texts,
but is also more or less evident in other contemporary languages (Iljinska, Pla-
tonova, and Smirnova 2015).
The authors maintain that polysemy is based on metaphors, allowed by the
similarity between two concepts belonging to different conceptual domains,
semantic or thematic fields. Metaphorical polysemy influences and guides the
taxonomy of terms: they are used, indeed, as the basis of nomination of many
metaphorical terms in civil engineering and architecture. For example, the human
body is represented schematically and mapped onto the structure of the building
(the building is a body metaphor). This is the reason why we find a superordi-
nate concept related to body which conditions the mapping of the hyponymic
concepts that are members of the same taxonomy (e.g. leg denotes support, eye
window, face the façade, head the upper part of a structure). The human body
is thus represented schematically and mapped onto the structure of the build-
ing. Iljinska, Platonova, and Smirnova analyse these kinds of relationships at a
semantic, pragmatic, and semiotic level, showing that the majority of metaphoric
terms based on the hyponyms of the concept body rely on the similarity of shape,
so their relationship with the source is primarily of iconic nature.
 How embodied cognition still matters to metaphor studies 11

Empirical study demonstrates that at present users of texts on civil engineer-

ing and architecture should rely upon corresponding background knowledge,
which includes linguistic competence, knowledge of a special subject field,
metaphorical competence and awareness of situational, cultural, and social con-
texts, as well as an understanding of the pragmatic and semiotic aspects of the
contemporary technical text. The more ancient the cognitive concept, the more
frequently and extensively it is used as a source in the process of meaning exten-
sion and, hence, term creation. This is a never-ending cognitive process, which
promotes creative thinking and stimulates the emergence of new ideas described
in the categories of other conceptual systems, thus resulting in a constant evolu-
tion of meaning. In particular, building is a body is one of the primary concep-
tual metaphors that has significantly influenced the development of professional
vocabulary in such fields as civil engineering and architecture. The linguistic
manifestations of this conceptual metaphor may take different forms contribut-
ing to the emergence of new terms in various semiotic systems, triggering various
associations framed within a cognitive model.
In the chapter Some observations about metaphors in specialised languages,
Micaela Rossi offers a survey of the approaches on the use of metaphors in lan-
guages for special purposes (LSP). The author argues that, in the first period of
studies on terminological metaphors, metaphorical terms were traditionally con-
sidered as isolated and episodic catachresis, that – in line with the general theory
of terminology – represented labels for universally shared concepts. Neverthe-
less, during the same period, epistemologists focused on the potentiality of the
metaphorical projective mechanism for creating, modelling, and promoting new
scientific theories. For instance, Stengers and Schlanger (1991) and Schlanger
(1995) put particular emphasis on the heuristic function of metaphor. Metaphor,
indeed can have a role of a trigger for establishing new analogies and forms of
understanding. An example is the concept of the Dutch irrigation canals which
in the Seventeenth century allowed William Harvey to formulate his scientific
discovery about the cardiovascular system (Oliveira 2009). Or, to consider a more
recent case, on the basis of Lakoff and Johnson’s theory (1980), Temmerman
(2007) identifies the specific transfer from English to French of the metaphorical
isotopy of the genetic code as a photographic film.
Starting from the 2000s, though, these different research fields opened to the
achievements of conceptual metaphor in LSP. Metaphors in terminology became
then a specific and autonomous topic in the last decade. Semiotic and functional
analysis of terminological metaphors shows that, far from designating a single
concept, they present a variety, that includes different types of conceptual pro-
jection, from catachresis to new paradigms. Micaela Rossi examines these differ-
ent cases, going through various examples, and by also considering the relations
12 Francesca Ervas, Elisabetta Gola and Maria Grazia Rossi

between figures of analogy and the influence of language/culture. The problems

of comparison or inter-linguistic translation of metaphors in specialised termi-
nology shows the link of terminological metaphors with their culture of origin
and other crucial factors like economic, socio-political, and geo-political aspects
that deeply influence the communicative dimension of metaphors.
Finally, the first section of the volume specifically dedicated to the commu-
nicative aspects of metaphor, shows that the embodied cognition framework,
presupposed by the conceptual theory of metaphor (Lakoff and Johnson 1980),
helps to systematically seize both multi-modal and verbal embodied expressions
in different media discourses and genres: cinema (see Fahlenbrach), politics
(see Busuioc), and architecture/civil engineering (see Iljinska, Platonova and
Smirnova), specialised terminologies in science (see Rossi). This is further devel-
oped in the following section. The chapters included in this section show the
need to integrate the embodied cognition framework within cultural and emo-
tional meanings, as well as the specific communicative goals and functions, in
order to provide a comprehensive explanation of metaphors.

4 Science
The section dedicated to science aims to explore why and under what condi-
tions metaphors can contribute to knowledge acquisition. The previous section
proved that metaphors are ubiquitous in both ordinary speech as well as scien-
tific discourse. History of science is replete with examples in this regard (Hesse
1974; Goodman 1976; Searle 1979; Kuhn 1979). However, metaphors are valuable
resources not only for communication purposes but also have specific epistemic
and heuristic functions, especially in the field of science (Ervas and Sangoi 2014).
The chapters included in this section investigate the role and the heuristic effec-
tiveness of metaphors in specific patterns of scientific reasoning, from classical
physics and quantum mechanics to neuroscience, biology to medicine.
The chapter Classical physics as a metaphorical tool for evoking quantum
world, by Silvano Tagliagambe and Luca Guzzardi, adopts the “boundary epis-
temology” as a reference framework to understand the differences between clas-
sical physics and quantum mechanics. In this view, boundaries have a twofold
function: they act as both a demarcation line and an interface. Regarding the first
function, a boundary allows to differentiate and separate entities. For example it
allows to distinguish between living organisms and their environments. As for the
second function, a boundary interface allows to connect two dimensions (living
organisms/environments; classical physics/quantum world), pointing out simi-
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