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 OUR FRAGILE PLANET

POLAR REGIONS
Human Impacts
 OUR FRAGILE PLANET
atmosphere
Biosphere
Climate
geosphere
Humans and the natural environment
Hydrosphere
oceans
polar regions
 OUR FRAGILE PLANET

POLAR REGIONS
Human Impacts

DANA DESONIE , PH .D.

Polar Regions

Copyright © 2008 by Dana Desonie, Ph.D.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval
systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact:

Chelsea House
An imprint of Infobase Publishing
132 West 31st Street
New York, NY 10001

Library of Congress ­Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data

Desonie, Dana.
Polar regions: human impacts / Dana Desonie.
p. cm. — (Our fragile planet)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-6218-8 (hardcover)
ISBN-10: 0-8160-6218-8 (hardcover)
1. Ecology—Polar regions—Juvenile literature. 2. Nature—Effect of human beings on—Juvenile
literature. 3. Polar regions—Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series.

QH541.5.P6D47 2007
578.0911—dc22 2007029994

Chelsea House books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for
­businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in
New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755.

You can find Chelsea House on the World Wide Web at http://www.chelseahouse.com

Text design by Annie O’Donnell

Cover design by Ben Peterson

Printed in the United States of America

Bang NMSG 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is printed on ­acid-­free paper.

All links and Web addresses were checked and verified to be correct at the time of publication.
Because of the dynamic nature of the Web, some addresses and links may have changed since publica-
tion and may no longer be valid.

Cover photograph: © Thomas & Pat Leeson/Photo Researchers, Inc.

 Contents
Preface vii
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction x

 Part oNe
the Polar regions 1
1. The Unique Polar Regions 3
2. The Nature of the Arctic and Antarctic 13
3. Life on Land in the Polar Regions 23
4. Life in the Polar Seas 36

 Part tWo
atmospheric Pollution and the Polar regions 51
5. The Antarctic Ozone Hole 53
6. Global Warming and the Polar Regions 64
7. The Effects of Global Warming on the Polar Regions 79
8. Future Polar Climate 93
9. Tackling Global Warming 101
 PART THREE
Chemical Pollution of the Arctic 109
10. Arctic Chemical Pollution 111
11. The Effects of Chemicals on Arctic Wildlife 125

 PART FOUR
Overfishing and Overhunting
in the Polar Regions 141
12. Threats to Fish and Fisheries 143
13. Threats to Marine Mammals and Birds 152

 PART FIVE
The Future of the Polar Regions 167
14. Protecting the Polar Regions 169
Conclusion 177

Glossary 181
Further Reading 194
Index 197
About the Author 202
 Preface

T
he planet is a marvelous place: a place with blue skies, wild
storms, deep lakes, and rich and diverse ecosystems. The tides
ebb and flow, baby animals are born in the spring, and tropi-
cal rain forests harbor an astonishing array of life. The Earth sustains
living things and provides humans with the resources to maintain a
bountiful way of life: water, soil, and nutrients to grow food, and the
mineral and energy resources to build and fuel modern society, among
many other things.
The physical and biological sciences provide an understanding of
the whys and hows of natural phenomena and processes—why the sky
is blue and how metals form, for example—and insights into how the
many parts are interrelated. Climate is a good example. Among the
many influences on the Earth’s climate are the circulation patterns of
the atmosphere and the oceans, the abundance of plant life, the quan-
tity of various gases in the atmosphere, and even the size and shapes of
the continents. Clearly, to understand climate it is necessary to have a
basic understanding of several scientific fields and to be aware of how
these fields are interconnected.
As Earth scientists like to say, the only thing constant about our
planet is change. From the ball of dust, gas, and rocks that came
together 4.6 billion years ago to the lively and diverse globe that orbits
the Sun today, very little about the Earth has remained the same for
long. Yet, while change is fundamental, people have altered the envi-
ronment unlike any other species in Earth’s history. Everywhere there
are reminders of our presence. A look at the sky might show a sooty
cloud or a jet contrail. A look at the sea might reveal plastic refuse,

vii
viii polar regions

oil, or only a few fish swimming where once they had been countless.
The land has been deforested and ­strip-­mined. Rivers and lakes have
been polluted. Changing conditions and habitats have caused some
plants and animals to expand their populations, while others have
become extinct. Even the ­climate—­which for millennia was thought to
be beyond human ­influence—­has been shifting due to alterations in
the makeup of atmospheric gases brought about by human activities.
The planet is changing fast and people are the primary ­cause.
Our Fragile Planet is a set of eight books that celebrate the
wonders of the world by highlighting the scientific processes behind
them. The books also look at the science underlying the tremendous
influence humans are having on the environment. The set is divided
into volumes based on the large domains on which humans have had
an impact: Atmosphere, Climate, Hydrosphere, Oceans, Geosphere,
Biosphere, and Polar Regions. The volume Humans and the Natural
Environment describes the impact of human activity on the planet and
explores ways in which we can live more sustainably.
A core belief expressed in each volume is that to mitigate the
impacts humans are having on the Earth, each of us must understand
the scientific processes that operate in the natural world. We must
understand how human activities disrupt those processes and use
that knowledge to predict ways that changes in one system will affect
seemingly unrelated systems. These books express the belief that sci-
ence is the solid ground from which we can reach an agreement on the
behavioral changes that we must ­adopt—­both as individuals and as a
­society—­to solve the problems caused by the impact of humans on our
fragile ­planet.
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 Acknowledgments

I
would like to thank, above all, the scientists who have dedicated
their lives to the study of the Earth, especially those engaged in
the important work of understanding how human activities are
impacting the planet. Many thanks to the staff of Facts On File and
Chelsea House for their guidance and editing expertise: Frank Darm-
stadt, Executive Editor; Brian Belval, Senior Editor; and Leigh Ann
Cobb, independent developmental editor. Dr. Tobi Zausner located
the color images that illustrate our planet’s incredible beauty and the
harsh reality of the effects human activities are having on it. Thanks
also to my agent, Jodie Rhodes, who got me involved in this project.
Family and friends were a great source of support and encourage-
ment as I wrote these books. Special thanks to the May ’97 Moms,
who provided the virtual water cooler that kept me sane during long
days of writing. Cathy Propper was always enthusiastic as I was writing
the books, and even more so when they were completed. My mother,
Irene Desonie, took great care of me as I wrote for much of June 2006.
Mostly importantly, my husband, Miles Orchinik, kept things moving
at home when I needed extra writing time and provided love, support,
and encouragement when I needed that, too. This book is dedicated
to our children, Reed and Maya, who were always loving, and usually
patient. I hope these books do a small bit to help people understand
how their actions impact the future for all children.

ix
 Introduction

T
he polar regions are unique sites on an exceptional planet.
The Arctic and Antarctic regions, which lie remote and distant
from the rest of the world, form the ice caps of the Earth. Until
recently, these areas were extremely difficult to reach from the more
temperate, populated regions of the world. With their cycles of dark
and bitter cold winters and long and plentiful summers, the polar areas
have existed without much impact from human civilization.
The north and south polar regions go through winter and sum-
mer cycles at opposite times of the year, but they both annually
experience months of darkness and months of sunlight. During the
long summers, plants bloom on land and in the seas. Water remains
captured in enormous amounts of ice that takes many forms: sea ice,
ice sheets, ice shelves, icebergs, frozen lakes and streams, and snow.
Even the ground is frozen much of the year. Polar life is unique,
either adapted to these harsh conditions or migrating into the area to
partake of the summer bounty. Marine life abounds in the cold seas.
Tiny plankton form the base of an ecosystem that includes abundant
fish, enormous whales, plentiful seals, and fabulous diving and
swimming birds.
Still, the Arctic and Antarctic are very different from each other:
The Arctic is an ocean surrounded by land, while the Antarctic is
land surrounded by an ocean. Although these two situations may not
seem very different, they result in distinct conditions. Both locations
are bitter cold and dry in the winter, but the presence of land around
the Arctic allows for more variability in temperature and precipitation.
Winters and summers in the Arctic are quite a bit warmer than in the

x
 Introduction xi

Antarctic. In many northern locations, temperatures hover around the

freezing point of water for a portion of the year. Because ice collects
better over frigid land than over relatively warm seawater, the ice sheet
that has grown over Antarctica far exceeds in area and volume the sea
ice that spreads over the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic has an ice sheet,
too; but the Greenland ice sheet is much smaller than the one that
covers Antarctica.
Arctic and Antarctic plant and animal species are also dissimilar.
Each location has relatively few different species when compared with
the species diversity found in more temperate climates. This is because
few species have been able to adapt to the severe conditions at the poles.
Polar region species are unusual. Herds of large mammals migrate
through the lands that surround the Arctic sea in summer; but, in Ant-
arctica, the only large mammals were introduced by human visitors in
the years between about a.d. 900 to about 1300. Polar bears and walrus
hunt from ice floes in the Arctic, but penguins are the main animals
that live in the Antarctic. Marine creatures in both regions are ­similar:
Large whales, seals, fish, and birds take advantage of the productive
seas, and some large marine mammals make the long annual journey
from one polar region to the other to reap the summertime abundance.
Human habitation and resource exploitation have had very different
impacts in the two locations. While about 4 million people currently
reside in the Arctic, only about 4,000 scientists inhabit Antarctica. The
Arctic has a long history of habitation by native people who developed
a complex set of rituals and skills to survive in the unforgiving condi-
tions. Their ­well-­timed practices took advantage of seasonal rhythms
that allowed them to thrive, or at least survive, year round. There is no
evidence that native people ever lived in the ­Antarctic—­hence, human
beings have not had as great an impact on its environment.
When the inhabitants of the temperate zones think of the polar
regions, they typically think of clean, white, and pristine lands. Com-
pared with the rest of the world, which has been greatly modified by
human activities, they mostly are. Relatively little pollution is produced
in the polar areas, and what little pollution is there, comes from far-
away places. The exploitation of the Arctic for oil and minerals results
xii polar regions

in some pollution. However, Antarctica, with its land buried beneath a

thick layer of ice, is largely off limits to commercial interests.
Pollution in the polar regions largely travels in from elsewhere.
Compared with the Arctic region, the Antarctic is isolated from many
of the environmental problems of the rest of the world. For one thing,
currents that circulate through the main portions of the ocean basins
do not reach that far south. The land that drains into the surrounding
ocean is cloaked in ice and uninhabited. Little land exists north of the
Antarctic seas because of the way most of the continents’ land masses
narrow at their southernmost reaches. The environmental problems
that the Antarctic does experience are largely caused by the emissions
of pollutants into the atmosphere from far away. Due to conditions that
are particular to the Antarctic, the ozone hole is centered there. The
worldwide problem of global warming is being felt there, too. Nor is
the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica immune to the problems
of overfishing and overhunting that plague the world’s oceans overall:
Over the past few centuries, Antartica’s marine creatures have been
subject to both.
The situation in the Arctic is vastly different from the Antarctic.
Because 70% of the world’s land, including the most developed regions
on Earth, is located in the Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic is vulner-
able to the environmental problems that plague those lands. Pollutants
travel in by air and via ocean currents and across lands in rivers that
drain into the region. As a result, Arctic animals have surprisingly large
concentrations of some toxic chemicals in their tissues and body fat. The
conditions that cause Arctic temperatures to be more variable also keep
air from becoming as stagnant as in Antarctica. For this reason, ozone
depletion in the Arctic is much less of a problem than in the Antarctic.
Like the Antarctic, though, the Arctic is warming at a higher rate than
the rest of the planet, and the effects of global warming are being felt
more strongly there. Overfishing and overhunting are also a concern.
This volume of Our Fragile Planet explores the polar regions and
how they are uniquely affected by environmental problems. Because
their harsh conditions make them more vulnerable to some environ-
mental ills, particularly global warming, the polar regions have been
 Introduction xiii

called the “canary in the coal mine.” (This expression refers to the
time before monitoring devices were invented to detect dangerous
gases in mines. To serve as a warning, coal miners kept caged canar-
ies in the mines with them. Because the birds were more sensitive to
deadly fumes than the miners, the miners knew that when the birds
died it was time to get out of the mine.) The changes now being seen in
the polar regions, especially in the Arctic, may also be a forewarning
of large changes to take place on the rest of the Earth.
Part One of this volume details the physical, chemical, and bio-
logical characteristics of the two polar areas. Part Two describes the
problems—particularly global warming—caused by atmospheric
pollutants, with an emphasis on the Arctic and the ozone hole in the
Antarctic. Due to its proximity to the developed parts of the world,
chemical pollution is much more serious a problem in the Arctic,
which is the focus of Part Three. Part Four describes overfishing and
overhunting in the Arctic and Southern Oceans. Finally, Part Five
looks at the protections that are already in place for the Arctic and
Antarctic and imagines the future of the Arctic—a future that may
arrive sooner than most people realize.
 PART ONE

THE POLAR REGIONS

 1
The Unique
Polar Regions

i
n part because their temperatures are often below the freezing
point of water, the polar regions are very different from any other
part of the world. Their remote locations, oceanic environments,
and atmospheric circulation patterns keep them somewhat isolated
from the rest of the world. The Antarctic is especially isolated because
it is surrounded by the world’s most rapid ocean current and because
it is so distant from the developed regions of the planet.

the PoleS and the Polar regionS

The polar regions refer to the areas surrounding the north and south
poles. The North Pole, also called True North, is the northernmost
point where the planet’s axis of rotation passes through the Earth.
From the true North Pole, everywhere else is south. The South Pole is
the North Pole’s mirror image—­the southernmost point of the Earth’s
surface where the planet’s axis of rotation passes through.

3
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