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PROFESSIONAL LEARNING: GAPS AND TRANSITIONS ON THE WAY
FROM NOVICE TO EXPERT
Innovation and Change in Professional Education
VOLUME 2

Series Editor:
Wim Gijselaers, Department of Educational Development and Educational Research,
University of Maastricht, The Netherlands

Associate Editors:
LuAnn Wilkerson, Center of Educational Development and Research,
University of California, Los Angeles, CA, U.S.A
Henny Boshuizen, Educational Technology Expertise Center, Open University Nederland,
The Netherlands

Editorial Board:
Howard Barrows, Professor Emeritus, School of Medicine, Southern Illinois University,
IL, U.S.A.
Edwin M. Bridges, Professor Emeritus, School of Education, Stanford University,
CA, U.S.A.
Thomas M. Duffy, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, U.S.A.
Rick Milter, College of Business, Ohio University, OH, U.S.A.

SCOPE OF THE SERIES

The primary aim of this book series is to provide a platform for exchanging experiences
and knowledge about educational innovation and change in professional education and
post-secondary education (engineering, law, medicine, management, health sciences, etc.).
The series provides an opportunity to publish reviews, issues of general significance to
theory development and research in professional education, and critical analysis of profes-
sional practice to the enhancement of educational innovation in the professions.

The series promotes publications that deal with pedagogical issues that arise in the context
of innovation and change of professional education. It publishes work from leading practi-
tioners in the field, and cutting edge researchers. Each volume is dedicated to a specific
theme in professional education, providing a convenient resource of publications dedica-
ted to further development of professional education.

The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume
Professional Learning:
Gaps and Transitions on the
Way from Novice to Expert

Edited by

HENNY P.A. BOSHUIZEN

Open Universiteit Nederland,
Heerlen, The Netherlands

RAINER BROMME
Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität,
Münster, Germany

and

HANS GRUBER
University of Regensburg,
Germany

KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS

NEW YORK, BOSTON, DORDRECHT, LONDON, MOSCOW
eBook ISBN: 1-4020-2094-5
Print ISBN: 1-4020-2066-X

©2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers

New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow

Print ©2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers

Dordrecht

All rights reserved

No part of this eBook may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, recording, or otherwise, without written consent from the Publisher

Created in the United States of America

Visit Kluwer Online at: http://kluweronline.com

and Kluwer's eBookstore at: http://ebooks.kluweronline.com
Contents

Contributing Authors ix

Preface xxi

Acknowledgments xxiii

Part 1: INTRODUCTION 1

INTRODUCTION: ON THE LONG WAY FROM NOVICE TO

EXPERT AND HOW TRAVELLING CHANGES THE
TRAVELLER 3
HENNY P. A. BOSHUIZEN, RAINER BROMME AND HANS GRUBER

Part 2: INITIAL EDUCATION: ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE TO

BECOME AN EXPERT 9

THE ROLE OF EXPERIENCE IN PROFESSIONAL TRAINING AND

DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELLORS 11
JOSEF STRASSER AND HANS GRUBER

THE CASE OF PLANT IDENTIFICATION IN BIOLOGY: WHEN

IS A ROSE A ROSE? 29
RAINER BROMME, ELMAR STAHL, TOBIAS BARTHOLOMÉ AND
STEPHANIE PIESCHL
vi Contents

OVERCOMING PROBLEMS OF KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION

AND TRANSFER 49
ROBIN STARK, HANS GRUBER, LUDWIG HINKOFER AND
HEINZ MANDL

Part 3: GAPS AND TRANSITIONS: ACCUMULATING

EXPERIENCE TO BECOME A PROFESSIONAL 71

DOES PRACTICE MAKE PERFECT? 73

HENNY P. A. BOSHUIZEN

FOSTERING MANAGERIAL PROBLEM-SOLVING 97

JOS A. R. ARTS, WIM H. GIJSELAERS AND MIEN S. R. SEGERS

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE IN MEDICAL EDUCATION 121

KATINKA J. A. H. PRINCE AND HENNY P. A. BOSHUIZEN

EMBEDDING AND IMMERSION AS KEY STRATEGIES IN

LEARNING TO TEACH 141
HARM H. TILLEMA

Part 4: WORKPLACE AND ORGANISATION: ENCULTURATION

TO BECOME AN EXPERT PROFESSIONAL 157

TEACHING EXPERTISE 159

EERO ROPO

PROFESSIONAL LEARNING: DELIBERATE ATTEMPTS AT

DEVELOPING EXPERTISE 181
MARGARETHA W. J. VAN DE WIEL, KIM H. P. SZEGEDI AND
MATHIEU C. D. P. WEGGEMAN

LEARNING PROFESSIONALS: TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED

MODEL 207
P. ROBERT-JAN SIMONS AND MANON C. P. RUIJTERS

FROM INDIVIDUAL COGNITION TO COMMUNITIES OF

PRACTICE 231
ANNELI ETELÄPELTO AND KAIJA COLLIN

COMPETENCE-SUPPORTING WORKING CONDITIONS 251

CHRISTIAN HARTEIS AND HANS GRUBER
Contents vii

NETWORK TIES, COGNITIVE CENTRALITY, AND TEAM

INTERACTION WITHIN A TELECOMMUNICATION
COMPANY 271
TUIRE PALONEN, KAJ HAKKARAINEN, JAANA TALVITIE AND
ERNO LEHTINEN

Index 295
This page intentionally left blank
Contributing Authors

Jos A. R. Arts
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Department of
Educational Development and Research, University Maastricht, PO. Box
616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands. [email protected] or
[email protected]
Jos Arts works in the field of educational development at University
Maastricht, Department of Educational Development and Educational
Research, and at Eindhoven Technical University, the Educational Service
Centre. His research interests are problem solving abilities, reasoning during
problem solving, knowledge use during solving problems, evaluation and
design of student-centred education. He earned his master degree in
educational technology in 1991 (Twente University). He is preparing his
Ph.D. thesis on ‘knowledge use and reasoning during managerial problem
solving in a student-directed learning environment’, expected spring 2004,
University Maastricht.

Tobias Bartholomé
Psychologisches Institut III, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster,
Fliednerstraße 21, D-48149 Münster, Germany. [email protected]
muenster.de
Tobias Bartholomé is a researcher at the University of Münster,
Germany, Department of Educational Psychology. He received his diploma
in psychology with a thesis on the perception of facial attractiveness in 2001.
Since 2002 he is holder of a scholarship in the virtual Ph.D.-program
‘Knowledge Acquisition and Knowledge Exchange with New Media’. In his
Ph.D. project he focuses on the effects of new media on the acquisition and
x Contributors

use of robust and flexible conceptual knowledge. His current research

interests comprise knowledge acquisition through learning with multiple
representations, development and evaluation of interactive learning
environments as well as help seeking within interactive learning
environments.

Henny P. A. Boshuizen
Educational Technology Expertise Centre, Open Universiteit Nederland,
PO Box 2960, 6401 DL Heerlen, The Netherlands. [email protected]
Henny Boshuizen is a full professor of education and educational
technology at the Open University of the Netherlands, Educational
Technology Expertise Centre (OTEC), where she a member of the
management team and director of the (post)graduate study programmes on
educational technology. Her research interests concern learning and
expertise development in professional domains (such as medicine, law,
education, accountancy and management), learning from experience and
communication and learning in (distributed) multi-professional teams.
Furthermore, she has done research on the effects of activating educational
strategies, such as problem-based learning. She studied psychology at the
University of Amsterdam where she received her MSc degree in 1979; her
Ph.D. thesis dealt with expertise development in medicine, University
Maastricht, 1989. She received a post-graduate Spencer grant by the U.S.
National Academy of Education. She co-chairs the EARLI (European
Association for Research on Learning and Instruction) Special Interest
Group ‘Learning and Professional Development’ (since 1999).

Rainer Bromme
Psychologisches Institut III, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster,
Fliednerstraße 21, D-48149 Münster, Germany. [email protected]
Rainer Bromme is a full professor of educational psychology at the
Department of Psychology at the University of Muenster. He studied
psychology at the University of Münster (Diplom Degree 1975), achieved a
doctor's degree at the University of Oldenburg (1979) and the 'Venia
Legendi' for psychology (habilitation) at the University of Bielefeld. His
research interests are cognition and teaching/learning processes, especially
related to the communication and cooperation between experts and
laypersons, development of professional expertise, learning with new media,
and the development of knowledge and understanding in science and
mathematics. He is a faculty member of the virtual Ph.D.-program
‘Knowledge Acquisition and Knowledge Exchange with New Media’,
funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG).
Contributors xi

Kaija Collin
Institute for Educational Research, FIN-40014 University of Jyväskylä,
PO Box 35, Finland. [email protected]
Kaija Collin is a Ph.D. student preparing her dissertation in adult
education. She is working as a researcher in the Institute for Educational
Research at the University of Jyväskylä. Her current work is funded by
Academy of Finland in the project of ‘Learning and the Development of
Expertise in the Interaction between Higher Education and Working Life’
directed by Professor Päivi Tynjälä. Collin’s research interest focuses on
learning in the workplace from the employees’ point of view. She
approaches workplace learning as shared practice.

Anneli Eteläpelto
Department of Education, FIN-40014 University of Jyväskylä, PO Box
35, Finland. [email protected]
Anneli Eteläpelto is a full professor of educational psychology in the
Research Centre for Educational Psychology at the University of Helsinki.
She received her Ph.D. degree in psychology from the University of
Jyväskylä. Eteläpelto has researched professional learning and developing
professional expertise in schooling and working life environments, and
learning professional competencies in design, programming, and teaching.
She is a founding member and present co-chair of the EARLI-SIG ‘Learning
and Professional Development’. She is the vice-president of the Finnish
Educational Research Association. From the beginning of the year 2004
Anneli Eteläpelto is a full professor of adult education at the Department of
Education at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland. Her recent research
interest additionally address themes on developing professional identities in
small-group-based learning communities.

Wim H. Gijselaers
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Department of
Educational Development and Research, University Maastricht, PO. Box
616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands. [email protected]
Wim Gijselaers is a full professor of education at University Maastricht,
The Netherlands. He is interested in various aspects of problem-based
learning, cognition and instruction, and educational measurement. His
current research focuses on the instructional design of powerful learning
environments, expertise development in management education, and shared
cognition in teams. Over the past 15 years, he was one of the persons
responsible for the implementation and further development of problem-
based learning in the economics and international business programs at this
university. As a consultant he was involved in the implementation of
xii Contributors

curriculum reform at several institutions in higher education adopting

problem-based learning as leading educational principle. He chaired the
executive board of EDiNEB, an international network of innovative
educators, for a period of eight years. He received his Ph.D. degree (1988) in
education from University Maastricht. Currently he serves the positions of
Director of the Graduate Program of International Business, and chair of the
department of Educational Development and Educational Research at the
Faculty of Economics and Business (University Maastricht).

Hans Gruber
Institute for Education, University of Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31,
D-93040 Regensburg, Germany. [email protected]
regensburg.de
Hans Gruber is a full professor of education (learning and instruction)
and Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy II (Psychology, Education, and
Sports) at the University of Regensburg, Germany. He studied psychology at
the University of Munich, Germany. He was the recipient of a dissertation
grant from the Max-Planck-Institute for Psychological Research. He did his
Ph.D. in psychology, education, and German literature. He received the
‘venia legendi’ for psychology and empirical education (habilitation) from
the University of Munich. His current research topics are expertise (domains
under investigation: counselling, music, sports, medicine); professional
experience; complex learning environments in professional domains;
epistemological beliefs; further learning at universities. He is founding
member of the EARLI Special Interest Group ‘Learning and Professional
Development’ and co-chaired it for four years (1999 – 2003).

Kai Hakkarainen
Department of Psychology, PO Box 9, FIN-00014 University of
Helsinki, Finland. [email protected]
Kai Hakkarainen is working as a research fellow of the Academy of
Finland. Currently he is the Director of the Centre for Research on
Networked Learning and Knowledge Building at the Department of
Psychology, University of Helsinki. He investigates socio-cognitive aspects
and theoretical foundations of computer-supported collaborative learning
and working. His research interests focus on dynamic theories of learning
and inquiry that help to understand and explain knowledge-creation
processes. He is particularly interested in empirically and theoretically
analysing complex reciprocal relations between individual, socially
distributed and cultural-historical cognitions. He received his MA degree in
1989, University of Helsinki, Finland, and his Ph.D. degree in 1998,
University of Toronto, Canada.
Contributors xiii

Christian Harteis
Institute for Education, University of Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31,
D-93040 Regensburg, Germany. [email protected]
regensburg.de
Christian Harteis holds a full position as research assistant at the
Department for Research on Learning and Instruction (Prof. Dr. Hans
Gruber) at the Institute for Education of the Regensburg University. Main
topics of his research are workplace learning, development of professional
competence, vocational education and training, personnel and organisational
development, and constructivism. He earned both his diploma in education
(Dipl.-Päd.) and his Ph.D. degree at the Regensburg University in 2002.

Ludwig Hinkofer
Department of Psychology, Institute of Educational Psychology, Ludwig-
Maximilian-University Munich, Leopoldstraße 13, D-80802 München,
Germany. [email protected]
Ludwig Hinkofer is a research collaborator and scientific assistant at the
Ludwig-Maximilian-University of Munich, Institute of Educational
Psychology. His research interests are learning with worked-out examples,
instructional measures to foster knowledge construction and transfer, e-
learning and didactics of multimedia. In 1997 he received his degree in
Business Administration at the University of Applied Sciences in Munich
(main focus on tourism, personnel development and human behaviour). He
earned his Ph.D. in education and psychology in 2003 at the University of
Munich.

Erno Lehtinen
Department of Teacher Education, FIN-20014 University of Turku,
Finland. [email protected]
Erno Lehtinen is a full professor of education and vice-rector of the
University of Turku. He graduated in educational science in 1977 at the
University of Turku and received his Ph.D. from the same University. He
has been a visiting research scholar at the universities of Bern, Edinburgh,
and Pittsburgh. His scientific interests focus on research on learning
environments, educational technology, and the development of expertise in
various contexts. He has studied the development of networked working
practices, computer supported collaborative learning and is currently
studying processes of conceptual change in learning advanced mathematics.
Lehtinen was the president of the EARLI in 2001-2003.
xiv Contributors

Heinz Mandl
Department of Psychology, Institute of Educational Psychology, Ludwig-
Maximilian-University Munich, Leopoldstraße 13, D-80802 München,
Germany. [email protected]
Heinz Mandl is a full professor of education and educational psychology,
at the University of Munich. His research interests are analysis and support
of knowledge acquisition and the application of knowledge in schools,
universities and organisations/corporations (knowledge transfer); personal
and organisational knowledge management; net-based knowledge
communication in groups; design, implementation and evaluation of
innovative learning environments especially with focus on self-directed and
cooperative learning and the integration of new media. Originally trained as
a teacher for primary and secondary education Mandl earned his Master
degree in psychology in 1971 at the University of Munich, and his Ph.D.
degree in 1974 at the same institute. Among his previous positions were a
professorship at the University of Tübingen, Director of the German Institute
for Distance Education at the University of Tübingen, and Dean of the
Faculty for Psychology and Education at the University of Munich. Mandl
was the president of the EARLI in 1989-1991.

Tuire Palonen
Centre for Learning Research, FIN-20014 Turku University, Finland.
[email protected]
Tuire Palonen is a researcher in the Centre for Learning Research in the
University of Turku. Her research interests focus on socially shared
knowledge, i.e. collective action. She is interested in social network analyses
and related methods, which concentrate on relationships among actors
working in joint collaboration. She received her MA degree in Sociology in
1987, her Licentiate of Sociology in 1992 and her Ph.D. degree in
educational sciences in 2003, all at the University of Turku, Finland.

Stephanie Pieschl
Psychologisches Institut III, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster,
Fliednerstraße 21, D-48149 Münster, Germany. [email protected]
muenster.de
Stephanie Pieschl is a researcher at the University of Münster, Germany,
Department of Educational Psychology. She received her diploma in
Psychology with a thesis about cognitive processes in plant identification in
2002. Since 2003 she is holder of a scholarship in the virtual Ph.D.-program
‘Knowledge Acquisition and Knowledge Exchange with New Media’.
Currently she is working on her Ph.D. thesis on the influence of
epistemological beliefs on meta-cognitive monitoring including regulatory
Contributors xv

behaviour like help seeking and error management. Her research interests
also include the development and evaluation of interactive learning
environments.

Katinka J. A. H. Prince
Skillslab, Faculty of Medicine, University Maastricht, PO Box 616, 6200
MD Maastricht, The Netherlands. [email protected]
Katinka Prince is a general practitioner and works part-time as a skills
trainer and researcher at the Skillslab of the Maastricht Medical School. She
received her MD degree from University University. Her Ph.D. thesis
(expected summer 2004) is in the domain of medical education and concerns
the transitions in medical training and the associated problems students are
facing, i.e., the transition from the theory-oriented first four years of the
undergraduate medical curriculum to clinical training, and the transition
from undergraduate medical training to the position of house officer. Her
research interests are: learning of students, problem-based learning, and
curriculum evaluation.

Eero Ropo
Department of Teacher Education, FIN-33014 University of Tampere,
Finland. [email protected]
Eero Ropo is a full professor of education and vice head at the
Department of Teacher Education, University of Tampere, Finland. He made
his MA in 1978, licentiate in 1980 and Ph.D. degree in 1984 at the
University of Tampere, Finland. He has been a visiting Fulbright scholar at
the LRDC, University of Pittsburgh, USA, and a visiting research scholar at
the Texas Tech University and Vanderbilt University, USA. Ropo pursues
international research interests, specialising in research on teachers and
teacher expertise, technology in education and the issues of curriculum
theory.

Manon C. P. Ruijters
Twynstra Gudde Management Consultants, PO Box 907, 3800 AX
Amersfoort, The Netherlands. [email protected]
Manon Ruijters is working as a senior adviser at Twynstra Gudde
Management Consultants in Amersfoort, the Netherlands. Her main field of
interest is human resource development (HRD), connecting organisational
success and individual growth and well-being. She designs and realizes
corporate academies and management development programs, coaches
HRD-professionals, maps (group) learning profiles, and realizes learning
architecture for complex learning questions. She studied educational
sciences, specialising in learning disabilities at Leiden University, where she
xvi Contributors

received her master’s degree in 1992. An additional master’s degree in

learning and development at Tias Business School of Tilburg University was
earned in 2000 (cum laude). In her Ph.D. research on ‘Language of learning,
learning profiles and learning propositions’ she connects her interest in
science with her working practice.

Mien S. R. Segers
Department of Education, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences,
Leiden University, PO Box 9500, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands.
[email protected] or [email protected]
Mien Segers is a full professor of educational sciences at the department
of Educational Sciences of Leiden University (the Netherlands) and at the
department of Educational Development and Research of University
Maastricht (The Netherlands). Her major research interests are the
evaluation and optimisation of learning in learner-centred learning
environments and new modes of assessment within these environments.
These research projects take place in school as well as in organisational
settings. She has been the coordinator of the Special Interest Group
‘Assessment and Evaluation’ of EARLI and is currently appointed as the
coordinator of the SIG ‘Higher Education’. She studied Education at the
University of Gent, Belgium (1985) and received her Ph.D. degree from
University Maastricht (1993) on a dissertation on quality assurance in higher
education.

P. Robert-Jan Simons
IVLOS, Department of Education, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 8,
3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands. [email protected]
P. Robert-Jan Simons is directing a centre of research on ICT in
education at Utrecht University as professor of learning and ICT. His main
research interest (s) are ICT related learning, professionalisation, learning on
the job, communities of practice and computer-supported collaborative
learning and working. P. Robert-Jan Simons graduated in psychology
(educational and developmental) at the University of Amsterdam in 1973
and received his Ph.D. degree from Tilburg University in 1981. He was the
president of the EARLI organisation from 1993 – 1995 and co-organized the
1995 EARLI conference. From 1990 till 2001 Simons was professor of
educational psychology at the University of Nijmegen, where he directed the
Research Institute for Pedagogy and Education.
Contributors xvii

Elmar Stahl
Psychologisches Institut III, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster,
Fliednerstraße 21, D-48149 Münster, Germany. [email protected]
muenster.de
Elmar Stahl is an assistant professor at the University of Münster,
Germany, Department of Educational Psychology. He received his master
degree in psychology with a thesis about binocular rivalry (visual
perception) in 1995. In 2001 he received his Ph.D. with a thesis about
knowledge acquisition and learning processes by writing hypertexts. His
current research interests proceeds in this vein. It furthermore includes topics
such as development and evaluation of interactive learning environments,
help seeking within interactive learning environments and the effects of
learner-related factors on learning processes, especially the effects of
epistemological beliefs on knowledge acquisition within e-learning
scenarios.

Robin Stark
Saarland University, Institute of Education, Working unit ‘Personality
Development and Education’, PO Box 151150, D-66123 Saarbrücken,
Germany. [email protected]
Robin Stark is a full professor of education at the Saarland University
(Germany), unit ‘Personality Development and Education’. His research
interests are learning with worked-out examples, problem-based learning
and teaching, motivational aspects of complex learning, conceptual change,
epistemological beliefs, knowledge transfer, and empirical research methods.
He received his master degree in psychology from the University of
Marburg, with a main focus on pedagogical and clinical psychology. From
1994 to 2003 he held the position of research collaborator and scientific
assistant at the University of Munich, Institute of Empirical Pedagogics and
Pedagogical Psychology, where he did research projects on example-based
learning in various domains. Here he received his Ph.D. degree in 1998, in
psychology, philosophy and education. In 2002, he received the ‘venia
legendi’ for psychology and empirical education (habilitation) from the
University of Munich.
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