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 Discrete
Mathematics
An Open Introduction

Oscar Levin

3rd Edition
 Discrete
Mathematics
An Open Introduction

Oscar Levin

3rd Edition
Oscar Levin
School of Mathematical Science
University of Northern Colorado
Greeley, Co 80639
[email protected]
http://math.oscarlevin.com/

© 2013-2021 by Oscar Levin

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike

4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.

3rd Edition
5th Printing: 1/7/2021

ISBN: 978-1792901690

A current version can always be found for free at

http://discrete.openmathbooks.org/

Cover image: Tiling with Fibonacci and Pascal.

For Madeline and Teagan
 Acknowledgements

This book would not exist if not for “Discrete and Combinatorial Mathe-
matics” by Richard Grassl and Tabitha Mingus. It is the book I learned
discrete math out of, and taught out of the semester before I began writing
this text. I wanted to maintain the inquiry based feel of their book but
update, expand and rearrange some of the material. Some of the best
exposition and exercises here were graciously donated from this source.
Thanks to Alees Seehausen who co-taught the Discrete Mathematics
course with me in 2015 and helped develop many of the Investigate!
activities and other problems currently used in the text. She also offered
many suggestions for improvement of the expository text, for which I am
quite grateful. Thanks also to Katie Morrison, Nate Eldredge and Richard
Grassl (again) for their suggestions after using parts of this text in their
classes.
While odds are that there are still errors and typos in the current book,
there are many fewer thanks to the work of Michelle Morgan over the
summer of 2016.
The book is now available in an interactive online format, and this is
entirely thanks to the work of Rob Beezer, David Farmer, and Alex Jordan
along with the rest of the participants of the pretext-support group.
Finally, a thank you to the numerous students who have pointed out
typos and made suggestions over the years and a thanks in advance to
those who will do so in the future.

v
vi
 Preface

This text aims to give an introduction to select topics in discrete mathe-

matics at a level appropriate for first or second year undergraduate math
majors, especially those who intend to teach middle and high school math-
ematics. The book began as a set of notes for the Discrete Mathematics
course at the University of Northern Colorado. This course serves both as
a survey of the topics in discrete math and as the “bridge” course for math
majors, as UNC does not offer a separate “introduction to proofs” course.
Most students who take the course plan to teach, although there are a
handful of students who will go on to graduate school or study applied
math or computer science. For these students the current text hopefully
is still of interest, but the intent is not to provide a solid mathematical
foundation for computer science, unlike the majority of textbooks on the
subject.
Another difference between this text and most other discrete math
books is that this book is intended to be used in a class taught using
problem oriented or inquiry based methods. When I teach the class, I will
assign sections for reading after first introducing them in class by using
a mix of group work and class discussion on a few interesting problems.
The text is meant to consolidate what we discover in class and serve as a
reference for students as they master the concepts and techniques covered
in the unit. None-the-less, every attempt has been made to make the text
sufficient for self study as well, in a way that hopefully mimics an inquiry
based classroom.
The topics covered in this text were chosen to match the needs of
the students I teach at UNC. The main areas of study are combinatorics,
sequences, logic and proofs, and graph theory, in that order. Induction is
covered at the end of the chapter on sequences. Most discrete books put
logic first as a preliminary, which certainly has its advantages. However, I
wanted to discuss logic and proofs together, and found that doing both
of these before anything else was overwhelming for my students given
that they didn’t yet have context of other problems in the subject. Also,
after spending a couple weeks on proofs, we would hardly use that at
all when covering combinatorics, so much of the progress we made was
quickly lost. Instead, there is a short introduction section on mathematical
statements, which should provide enough common language to discuss
the logical content of combinatorics and sequences.
Depending on the speed of the class, it might be possible to include
additional material. In past semesters I have included generating functions
(after sequences) and some basic number theory (either after the logic and

vii
viii

proofs chapter or at the very end of the course). These additional topics
are covered in the last chapter.
While I (currently) believe this selection and order of topics is optimal,
you should feel free to skip around to what interests you. There are
occasionally examples and exercises that rely on earlier material, but I
have tried to keep these to a minimum and usually can either be skipped
or understood without too much additional study. If you are an instructor,
feel free to edit the LATEX or PreTeXt source to fit your needs.

Improvements to the 3rd Edition.

In addition to lots of minor corrections, both to typographical and math-
ematical errors, this third edition includes a few major improvements,
including:

• More than 100 new exercises, bringing the total to 473. The selection
of which exercises have solutions has also been improved, which
should make the text more useful for instructors who want to assign
homework from the book.
• A new section in on trees in the graph theory chapter.
• Substantial improvement to the exposition in chapter 0, especially
the section on functions.
• The interactive online version of the book has added interactivity.
Currently, many of the exercises are displayed as WeBWorK problems,
allowing readers to enter answers to verify they are correct.

The previous editions (2nd edition, released in August 2016, and the
Fall 2015 edition) will still be available for instructors who wish to use
those versions due to familiarity.
My hope is to continue improving the book, releasing a new edition
each spring in time for fall adoptions. These new editions will incorporate
additions and corrections suggested by instructors and students who use
the text the previous semesters. Thus I encourage you to send along any
suggestions and comments as you have them.
Oscar Levin, Ph.D.
University of Northern Colorado, 2019
 How to use this book

In addition to expository text, this book has a few features designed to

encourage you to interact with the mathematics.

Investigate! activities.
Sprinkled throughout the sections (usually at the very beginning of a topic)
you will find activities designed to get you acquainted with the topic soon
to be discussed. These are similar (sometimes identical) to group activities
I give students to introduce material. You really should spend some time
thinking about, or even working through, these problems before reading
the section. By priming yourself to the types of issues involved in the
material you are about to read, you will better understand what is to come.
There are no solutions provided for these problems, but don’t worry if you
can’t solve them or are not confident in your answers. My hope is that you
will take this frustration with you while you read the proceeding section.
By the time you are done with the section, things should be much clearer.

Examples.
I have tried to include the “correct” number of examples. For those
examples which include problems, full solutions are included. Before
reading the solution, try to at least have an understanding of what the
problem is asking. Unlike some textbooks, the examples are not meant to
be all inclusive for problems you will see in the exercises. They should
not be used as a blueprint for solving other problems. Instead, use the
examples to deepen our understanding of the concepts and techniques
discussed in each section. Then use this understanding to solve the
exercises at the end of each section.

Exercises.
You get good at math through practice. Each section concludes with
a small number of exercises meant to solidify concepts and basic skills
presented in that section. At the end of each chapter, a larger collection of
similar exercises is included (as a sort of “chapter review”) which might
bridge material of different sections in that chapter. Many exercise have
a hint or solution (which in the PDF version of the text can be found by
clicking on the exercise number—clicking on the solution number will
bring you back to the exercise). Readers are encouraged to try these
exercises before looking at the help.

ix
x

Both hints and solutions are intended as a way to check your work,
but often what would “count” as a correct solution in a math class would
be quite a bit more. When I teach with this book, I assign exercises that
have solutions as practice and then use them, or similar problems, on
quizzes and exams. There are also problems without solutions to challenge
yourself (or to be assigned as homework).

Interactive Online Version.

For those of you reading this in a PDF or in print, I encourage you to
also check out the interactive online version, which makes navigating the
book a little easier. Additionally, some of the exercises are implemented
as WeBWorK problems, which allow you to check your work without
seeing the correct answer immediately. Additional interactivity is planned,
including instructional videos for examples and additional exercises at the
end of sections. These “bonus” features will be added on a rolling basis,
so keep an eye out!
You can view the interactive version for free at http://discrete.
openmathbooks.org/ or by scanning the QR code below with your smart
phone.
 Contents

Acknowledgements v

Preface vii

How to use this book ix

0 Introduction and Preliminaries 1

0.1 What is Discrete Mathematics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.2 Mathematical Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Atomic and Molecular Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Predicates and Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
0.3 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Relationships Between Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Operations On Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Venn Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
0.4 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Describing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Surjections, Injections, and Bijections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Image and Inverse Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

1 Counting 57
1.1 Additive and Multiplicative Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Counting With Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Principle of Inclusion/Exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.2 Binomial Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Bit Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Lattice Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Binomial Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Pascal’s Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.3 Combinations and Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.4 Combinatorial Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

xi
xii Contents

Patterns in Pascal’s Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

More Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1.5 Stars and Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1.6 Advanced Counting Using PIE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Counting Derangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Counting Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

2 Sequences 135
2.1 Describing Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2.2 Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Sums of Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . 151
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.3 Polynomial Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2.4 Solving Recurrence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
The Characteristic Root Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2.5 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Stamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Formalizing Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Strong Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
2.6 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

3 Symbolic Logic and Proofs 197

3.1 Propositional Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Logical Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Deductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Beyond Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.2 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Direct Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Proof by Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Proof by Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Proof by (counter) Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
 Contents xiii

Proof by Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
3.3 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

4 Graph Theory 231

4.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.2 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Properties of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Rooted Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Spanning Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.3 Planar Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Non-planar Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.4 Coloring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Coloring in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Coloring Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.5 Euler Paths and Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Hamilton Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4.6 Matching in Bipartite Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
4.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

5 Additional Topics 295

5.1 Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Building Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Differencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Multiplication and Partial Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Solving Recurrence Relations with Generating Functions . 302
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
5.2 Introduction to Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Divisibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Remainder Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Properties of Congruence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Solving Congruences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Solving Linear Diophantine Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
xiv Contents

A Selected Hints 325

B Selected Solutions 335

C List of Symbols 385

Index 387
 Chapter 0

Introduction and Preliminaries

Welcome to Discrete Mathematics. If this is your first time encountering

the subject, you will probably find discrete mathematics quite different
from other math subjects. You might not even know what discrete math is!
Hopefully this short introduction will shed some light on what the subject
is about and what you can expect as you move forward in your studies.

0.1 What is Discrete Mathematics?

dis·crete / dis’krët.
Adjective: Individually separate and distinct.
Synonyms: separate - detached - distinct - abstract.

Defining discrete mathematics is hard because defining mathematics is hard.

What is mathematics? The study of numbers? In part, but you also
study functions and lines and triangles and parallelepipeds and vectors
and . . . . Or perhaps you want to say that mathematics is a collection of
tools that allow you to solve problems. What sort of problems? Okay,
those that involve numbers, functions, lines, triangles, . . . . Whatever your
conception of what mathematics is, try applying the concept of “discrete”
to it, as defined above. Some math fundamentally deals with stuff that is
individually separate and distinct.
In an algebra or calculus class, you might have found a particular set of
numbers (maybe the set of numbers in the range of a function). You would
represent this set as an interval: [0, ∞) is the range of f (x)  x 2 since the
set of outputs of the function are all real numbers 0 and greater. This set
of numbers is NOT discrete. The numbers in the set are not separated by
much at all. In fact, take any two numbers in the set and there are infinitely
many more between them which are also in the set.
Discrete math could still ask about the range of a function, but the set
would not be an interval. Consider the function which gives the number
of children of each person reading this. What is the range? I’m guessing it
is something like {0, 1, 2, 3}. Maybe 4 is in there too. But certainly there is
nobody reading this that has 1.32419 children. This output set is discrete
because the elements are separate. The inputs to the function also form a
discrete set because each input is an individual person.
One way to get a feel for the subject is to consider the types of problems
you solve in discrete math. Here are a few simple examples:

1
2 0. Introduction and Preliminaries

Investigate!
Note: Throughout the text you will see Investigate! activities like this
one. Answer the questions in these as best you can to give yourself a feel
for what is coming next.
1. The most popular mathematician in the world is throwing
a party for all of his friends. As a way to kick things off,
they decide that everyone should shake hands. Assuming
all 10 people at the party each shake hands with every other
person (but not themselves, obviously) exactly once, how
many handshakes take place?
2. At the warm-up event for Oscar’s All Star Hot Dog Eating
Contest, Al ate one hot dog. Bob then showed him up by
eating three hot dogs. Not to be outdone, Carl ate five. This
continued with each contestant eating two more hot dogs
than the previous contestant. How many hot dogs did Zeno
(the 26th and final contestant) eat? How many hot dogs were
eaten all together?
3. After excavating for weeks, you finally arrive at the burial
chamber. The room is empty except for two large chests. On
each is carved a message (strangely in English):

If this chest is This chest is filled

empty, then the with treasure or the
other chest’s other chest contains
message is true. deadly scorpions.

You know exactly one of these messages is true. What should

you do?
4. Back in the days of yore, five small towns decided they
wanted to build roads directly connecting each pair of towns.
While the towns had plenty of money to build roads as long
and as winding as they wished, it was very important that
the roads not intersect with each other (as stop signs had
not yet been invented). Also, tunnels and bridges were not
allowed. Is it possible for each of these towns to build a
road to each of the four other towns without creating any
intersections?

! Attempt the above activity before proceeding !

One reason it is difficult to define discrete math is that it is a very broad
description which encapsulates a large number of subjects. In this course
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