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PCI
DESIGN
HANDBOOK
PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
7TH EDITION
200 West Adams Street 200 West Adams Street 200
Suite 2100 Chicago, IL 60606 Suite 2100 Chicago, IL 60606 Suite 21
Phone: 312-786-0300 Phone: 312-786-0300 Pho
Fax: 312-621-1114 Fax: 312-621-1114 Fa
www.pci.org www.pci.org
200 West Adams Street I Suite 2100 I Chicago, IL 60606-5230
Phone: 312-786-0300 I Fax: 312-621-1114 I www.pci.org
PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION First Printing/CD-ROM Edition
Copyright © 2010
By Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
First Edition, first printing, 1971
First Edition, second printing, 1972
Second Edition, first printing, 1978
Second Edition, second printing, 1980
Third Edition, first printing, 1985
Fourth Edition, first printing, 1992
Fifth Edition, first printing, 1999
Sixth Edition, first printing, 2004
Seventh Edition, first printing, 2010
All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof may not
be reproduced in any form without the written permission
of the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 2010927089
ISBN 978-0-937040-87-4
Printed in U.S.A.
First Printing/CD-ROM Edition PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION
PCI
DESIGN
HANDBOOK
PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
7TH EDITION
PCI Industry Handbook Committee
Greg Force, P.E., FPCI, Chairman
Neal S. Anderson, P.E., S.E., FACI Karen Laptas, P.E. Timothy R. Salmons, P.E., S.E.
Ned M. Cleland, PhD, P.E., FPCI, FACI David J. Larsen, P.E., S.E. Kim E. Seeber, P.E., FPCI
Harry A. Gleich, P.E., FPCI, FACI Jason P. Lien, P.E. Larbi Sennour, PhD, P.E., FPCI, FACI
Gary A. Householder, P.E. Rafael A. Magana, P.E. a
Fattah Shaikh, PhD, P.E., FPCI
Pat Hynes, P.E., FPCI Michael I. Owings, P.E., S.E. Irwin J. Speyer, P.E., FPCI, FACI
Phillip J. Iverson, P.E. Stephen Pessiki, PhD, FPCI, FACI Peter G. Troiani, P.E., S.E.
Walter Korkosz, P.E., S.E. Steven H. Peterson, P.E. Helmuth Wilden, P.E., FPCI
Jason Krohn, P.E. Courtney B. Phillips, P.E., S.E. Charles E. Wynings, P.E.
Consulting Members
Robert F. Mast, P.E., S.E., FPCI, HACI Jagdish C. Nijhawan, P.E., FPCI J. Robert Norris, P.E.
Editor
Helmuth Wilden, P.E., FPCI
a. Deceased January 10, 2008
PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION First Printing/CD-ROM Edition
Dedication
This seventh edition of the PCI Design Handbook is dedicated to A. Fattah Shaikh, who passed away on Janu-
ary 10, 2008, at the age of 70. He received his BS in civil engineering from the University of Karachi in Paki-
stan in 1960, his MS in structural engineering from the University of Hawaii in 1964, and his PhD in structural
engineering from the University of Iowa in 1967, at which time his career started at the University of Wisconsin
Milwaukee (UWM). Dr. Shaikh served UWM for 36 years as a professor of structural engineering, chairman of
the Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, and associate dean of Graduate Programs and Research. He
retired in 2003. His internationally recognized expertise in the field of structural concrete and his passion for his
students and profession earned him the reputation as one of the most popular professors at the university.
His contributions to PCI and the precast, prestressed concrete industry were extraordinary. He served on many
PCI committees for many years, including the Industry Handbook Committee, for which he was co-editor of the
4th edition and chairman of the committee for the 5th edition, and the Connection Details Committee for which
he was editor of the 1988 Connection Details Manual.
Fattah was admired by practicing precast engineers throughout the country for his practical application of
complicated research. He was the first to compile headed stud research results and recommend a simple design
methodology that was used successfully by the industry for many years. He also was an early advocate of using
dry connections in high seismic areas with the application of the "specific yielding" principle that has become
the standard for the design of precast concrete connections today. All users of precast concrete will forever be
indebted to him for his work in moving the industry ahead.
He has been honored by PCI with several awards including being inducted in the inaugural class of PCI Fel-
lows in 1994 and given the distinguished Educator Award in 1998. In 2004 Fattah was named one of 50 Titans
of the Industry. Those chosen for this distinction have made a positive and industry-altering contribution to the
industry in the 50 years preceding 2004 by creating new technology, product innovations, opening new markets,
or dramatically changing how the industry manufactures and delivers its products. He was one of only five aca-
demics chosen for this honor.
His other awards include the AMOCO Distinguished Teacher Award in 1979 and the Orton Spanley Award
in 1994 for outstanding long-term contributions to the concrete industry in the areas of education, research, and
technical leadership. Fattah was also a Fellow of the American Concrete Institute and the American Society of
Civil Engineers.
Fattah will be remembered for his sense of humor, his enjoyment of tennis and racquetball, and his compassion
and love for his wife Sunja, daughters Aysha and Sabina, son Omar, and five grandchildren. All who knew him
are very grateful to Fattah for sharing his knowledge, wisdom, and friendship with us.
First Printing/CD-ROM Edition PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION
Foreword
The Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, a non-profit • After analysis of the above and discussion regarding
corporation, was founded in 1954 for the purpose of advanc- improved and/or updated content matter, each sub-
ing the design, manufacture, and use of structural precast/ group developed a draft of their respective chapters.
prestressed concrete and architectural precast concrete in • Each chapter was then edited by the editor and a com-
the United States and Canada. To meet this purpose, PCI mittee ballot version was created.
continually disseminates information on the latest concepts, • Each chapter was balloted by the committee with reso-
techniques, and design data to the engineering and architec- lution of all comments done during meetings of the full
tural professions through regional and national programs and committee. This process included fourteen face to face
technical publications. meetings, and at least nine web-based teleconferences
The first edition of the PCI Design Handbook was pub- over the four-year course of development.
lished in 1971 with a primary focus on structural products and • Additional editing was done and a TAC ballot version
buildings. To fill a void in the design of architectural precast was created.
concrete, the PCI Manual for Structural Design of Architec- • Each chapter was balloted by TAC with resolution of
tural Precast Concrete was published in 1977. In 1978, the all comments by both TAC and the Industry Handbook
second edition of the PCI Design Handbook was published. Committee.
In keeping with the tradition of continually updating informa- • Based on these approved versions, a Blue Ribbon
tion, an Industry Handbook Committee was formed in 1979 Review version was created and this final review phase
to develop the third edition, which was published in 1985. consisted of a Blue Ribbon Review Committee, made
That edition provided, in a single source, information on the up of plant engineers, specialty engineers, consult-
design of both architectural precast concrete and structural ing engineers, academicians, and associate members.
precast/prestressed concrete. The fourth edition, published Each member of the Blue Ribbon Review Commit-
in 1992; the fifth edition, published in 1999; and the sixth tee is a recognized leader in the analysis and design
edition, published in 2004 continued to present both archi- of precast/prestressed concrete products or expert in a
tectural and structural products and systems. This emphasis closely related field. After a six-week review period,
is maintained in the seventh edition. All past editions of the this group met for three days and offered valuable com-
handbook have been intended for the design of buildings. For ments, that were considered by the Industry Handbook
similar design guidelines for bridges, refer to PCI’s Bridge Committee. Most were accepted as improving the pub-
Design Manual, 2003. lication.
Since 2004, the committee has continued to monitor tech- • A final version of each chapter was then created and
nical advancements within the industry, with particular assis- reviewed thoroughly by the original chapter sub-
tance from the many committees of PCI responsible for a group. This resulted in a few corrections and further
variety of specific topics. This seventh edition is the culmina- improvement.
tion of those efforts and presents current industry practice.
The members of the committee listed on the title page have In addition, a comprehensive editorial review of the Hand-
made significant contributions of their time and expertise. In book was carried out by the PCI Production Department led
addition, PCI committees have provided a review of specific by Emily Lorenz, editor in chief of the PCI Journal. PCI and
areas. Many individuals within the industry have also pro- the Industry Handbook Committee extend its appreciation to
vided advice and comment. The Institute offers all involved in all individuals for their invaluable review and input. Sev-
this process a special note of recognition and appreciation. eral that deserve special recognition include: Chuck Oswald,
It is important that the user of the handbook understand the PhD, P.E., who was retained by PCI to develop the section
process used by the Industry Handbook Committee in the devel- in Chapter 4 on blast resistant design; Alan Mattock, P.E.,
opment of this seventh edition. That process was as follows: PhD, who provided the information to justify the changes in
the shear friction design; Gary Klein, P.E., S.E., whose expe-
• Use the sixth edition as the baseline, with the under- rience with research and design of beams with ledges helped
standing that ACI 318-05, ASCE 7-05, and IBC 2006 update that material; Roy Reiterman, P.E., FACI, for updat-
would be the relevant building code references for the ing the Design Aids related to welded-wire-reinforcement,
seventh edition. Dan Stadig who helped with several design examples as well
• The committee agreed on a new arrangement going as John Maher and Dan Sochor who were interns at PCI dur-
from 11 chapters to 15 as described below. ing the latter stages of development and assisted in reviews
• A subgroup was established for each chapter with three of several chapters.
to seven members each including a chairperson, with Updates to the sixth edition have been made throughout the
the purpose of detailed review of the existing chapter document. Some of particular importance include:
and exhaustive review of research and publications rel-
evant to the subject material within that chapter subse-
quent to the previous edition.
PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION First Printing/CD-ROM Edition
• Updated to the ACI 318-05 building code, other cur- sixth edition. It also provides new information on other
rent PCI publications, and publications of other techni- materials used in the industry.
cal associations. • Chapter 10 (Section 9.3 of the sixth edition) is now
• Chapter 1 includes updated photographs that illustrate totally devoted to information on fire resistance since
more current projects. this is a major benefit of using precast/prestressed con-
• Chapter 2 is entirely new and includes notation for the crete. A new section related to fire endurance of pre-
entire handbook. cast parking structures has also been added.
• Chapter 3 (Chapter 2 in the sixth edition) includes • Chapter 11 (Sections 9.1 and 9.2 of the sixth edition)
updated load tables as well as new information for pre- has updated information.
liminary design of stadium risers, stairs, and non-load- • Chapter 12 (Section 9.7 of the sixth edition) is essen-
bearing panels. tially the same.
• Chapter 4 (Chapter 3 in the sixth edition) has been • Chapter 13 (Chapter 8 of the sixth edition) has been
reduced in content since the PCI publications Seismic updated and is more in line with ACI’s tolerances.
Design of Precast/Prestressed Concrete Structures, • Chapter 14 (Chapter 10 of the sixth edition) has been
2007 has been published and includes the latest seis- reorganized to place an updated Standard Practice first
mic design according to IBC 2006. Examples for and also includes an updated Operations Practice. The
shear wall buildings and for precast diaphragms have specifications for both structural and architectural pre-
been updated to clarify diaphragm and collector design cast concrete are in a Word.doc format on the CD in the
procedures. An entirely new section on blast-resistant front jacket pocket.
design has been added. • Chapter 15 (Chapter 11 of the sixth edition) includes
• Chapter 5 (Chapter 4 in the sixth edition) has been updated Design Aids as well as new ones providing
updated with significant changes to the use of shear bent bar details and standard shear reinforcement for
friction and ledge hanger steel design. The asymmet- double-tees.
rical components (bleacher seating) section has been • The Appendix is totally new and is the result of PCI’s
expanded and a design example added. Sections on Technical Activities Council directing that the impact
concrete corbel design and sandwich panels have been of ACI 318-08 be included.
moved into the chapter from other chapters in the previ- • A searchable CD is included in the front jacket pocket
ous edition. New sections have been created covering of the handbook. This CD has the full text of the hand-
shear walls, including a design example, point loads on book and many of the cited PCI references.
double-tee flanges, and warping of double-tees.
• Chapter 6 has been updated to reflect the latest headed Substantial effort has been made to ensure that this hand-
stud design criteria, advanced steel component design book is accurate. However, PCI cannot accept responsibility
procedures, and the Instantaneous Center Method of for any errors or oversights in the use of material or in the
weld analysis. preparation of engineering plans. The designer must recog-
• Chapter 7 is updated and now includes examples for nize that no handbook or code can substitute for experience
ASCE 7-05 wind design Methods 1 and 2 as well as an and engineering judgment. This publication is intended for
expanded seismic load example that was in Chapter 4 use by professional personnel competent to evaluate the sig-
of the sixth edition. nificance and limitations of its contents and able to accept
• Chapter 8 has been revised to include updated infor- responsibility for the application of the material it contains.
mation and much of the erection stability information PCI considers each new edition of the handbook to be a liv-
has been deleted because this is better handled by the ing document. The user is encouraged to offer comments to
project designers responsible for this aspect of the PCI and suggestions for improvements to be incorporated in
construction. the next edition. Questions concerning the source or deriva-
• Chapter 9 is a totally new chapter on materials and tion of any material in the handbook should be directed to the
condenses material covered in several chapters of the PCI Technical Director.
Comment by Chairman Greg Force:
I would like to offer my sincere thanks, appreciation, and admiration to my fellow Committee Members,
the Editor, the PCI Staff, as well as countless others within the industry whose purpose and intent was to
create an invaluable design resource that places precast, prestressed concrete in the vanguard of building
system materials.
First Printing/CD-ROM Edition PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION
Members of the Blue Ribbon Committee
Suzanne Aultman, P.E. Barry N. McKinley, P.E.
Martin A. Cuadra, P.E., S.E. Alexander G. Mihaylov, P.E., S.E.
Roland Diaz, P.E. Christopher P. Mosley, P.E.
Mike Dixon, P.E. Clay J. Naito, PhD, P.E.
Robert J. Frosch, PhD, P.E., FACI Joseph Retzner, P.E.
Kim R. Hammon, P.E. Sami H. Rizkalla, PhD, FASCE, FPCI, FACI
J. Blake Hodge, P.E. David M. Schreffler, P.E.
Keith Holshausen, CEng, FICE Venkatesh Seshappa, P.E., S.E.
John M. Jacobsen, P.E.
PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION First Printing/CD-ROM Edition
First Printing/CD-ROM Edition PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION
Table of Contents
Chapter 1—Precast and Prestressed Concrete:
Applications
1–1 to 1–28
Chapter 2—Notations
2–1 to 2–18
Chapter 3—Preliminary Design of Precast/
Prestressed Concrete Structures
3–1 to 3–64
Chapter 4—Analysis and Design of Precast/
Prestressed Concrete Structures
4–1 to 4–98
Chapter 5—Design of Precast and Prestressed
Concrete Components
5–1 to 5–152
Chapter 6—Design of Connections
6–1 to 6–116
Chapter 7—Structural Considerations for Architectural
Precast Concrete
7–1 to 7–36
Chapter 8—Component Handling and Erection Bracing
8–1 to 8–28
Chapter 9—Precast and Prestressed Concrete: Materials
9–1 to 9–42
Chapter 10—Design for Fire Resistance of
Precast and Prestressed Concrete
10–1 to 10–26
Chapter 11—Thermal and Acoustical Properties of Precast Concrete
11–1 to 11–26
Chapter 12—Vibration Design of Precast/
Prestressed Concrete Floor Systems
12–1 to 12–10
Chapter 13—Tolerances for Precast and Prestressed Concrete
13–1 to 13–34
Chapter 14— Specifications and Standard Practices
14-1 to 14-36
Chapter 15— General Design Information
15–1 to 15–62
Appendix—Impact of ACI 318-08 on this Handbook
A–1 to A–22
Index
PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION First Printing/CD-ROM Edition
LIST OF EXAMPLES AND DESIGN AIDS
CHAPTER 3
PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF PRECAST/ PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
3.12
Design Aids.......................................................................................................................................................... 3-50
3.12.1 Design Strength Interaction Curves for Precast, Prestressed Concrete Columns................ 3-50
3.12.2 Design Strength Interaction Curves for Precast, Reinforced Concrete Columns................ 3-52
3.12.3 Design Strength Interaction Curves for Precast, Prestressed Double-Tee Wall Panels..... 3-54
3.12.4 Partial Interaction Curves for Prestressed Hollow-Core and Sandwich Wall Panels.......... 3-55
3.12.5 Partial Interaction Curves for Precast, Prestressed Solid and Sandwich Wall Panels......... 3-56
3.12.6 Partial Interaction Curves for Precast, Reinforced Concrete Solid and
Sandwich Wall Panels......................................................................................................... 3-57
3.12.7 Recommended Height-to-Thickness Ratio Limits for Precast, Reinforced Solid
Non-Load Bearing Wall Panels........................................................................................... 3-58
3.12.8 Section Properties and Allowable Service Loads for Prestressed Concrete Piles.............. 3-59
3.12.9 Section Properties and Allowable Service Loads of Prestressed Sheet Piles...................... 3-60
3.12.10 Recommended Maximum Spans for Precast Concrete Stairs............................................. 3-61
3.12.11 Stadium Riser Allowable Spans.......................................................................................... 3-62
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PRECAST/ PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Example 4.2.2.1 Calculation of Snow Load..................................................................................................... 4-6
4.2.3.1 Use of ASCE 7 Method 1 for Wind-Load Determination..................................................... 4-8
4.2.4.1 Determination of Base Shear Coefficient CS....................................................................... 4-12
4.3.2.1 Compliance of a Precast Concrete Structure with Structural Integrity Provisions.............. 4-17
4.4.1.1 Calculation of Volume-Change Shortening......................................................................... 4-19
4.4.1.2 Determine Volume-Change Shortening by Design Aids 4.11.18 and 4.11.19.................... 4-20
4.5.7.1 Design of Unsymmetrical Shear Walls................................................................................ 4-27
4.5.11.1 Typical Single-Story Industrial Building............................................................................. 4-31
4.5.12.1 Three-Level Parking Structure............................................................................................ 4-37
4.6.1.1 Stability Analysis of an Unbraced Frame............................................................................ 4-48
4.6.3.1 Degree of Fixity................................................................................................................... 4-50
4.6.4.1 Imaginary Column for Computer Model............................................................................. 4-52
4.9.4 Blast Design Example.......................................................................................................... 4-72
4.11 Design Aids.......................................................................................................................................................... 4-77
4.11.1 Classification of Building and Other Structures for Importance Factors I.......................... 4-77
4.11.2 Ground snow loads.............................................................................................................. 4-78
4.11.3 Snow Loading...................................................................................................................... 4-80
4.11.4 Snow Drifting...................................................................................................................... 4-81
4.11.5 Basic Wind Speed................................................................................................................ 4-82
4.11.6 Factors for Use with ASCE 7 Method 1 Wind Design........................................................ 4-84
4.11.7 Site Classifications and Coefficients................................................................................... 4-85
4.11.8 Design Coefficients and Factors for Precast Concrete Seismic-Force-Resisting
System.................................................................................................................................. 4-86
4.11.9 Allowable Story Drifta ........................................................................................................ 4-87
4.11.10 Architectural Components Coefficients.............................................................................. 4-87
4.11.11 Maximum Seasonal Climatic Temperature Change, °F...................................................... 4-88
4.11.12 Annual Average Ambient Relative Humidity..................................................................... 4-88
4.11.13 Creep and Shrinkage Strains................................................................................................ 4-89
4.11.14 Correction Factors for Prestress and Concrete Strength, Creep Only................................. 4-89
4.11.15 Correction Factors for Relative Humidity........................................................................... 4-90
4.11.16 Correction Factors for Volume-to-Surface (V/S) Ratio...................................................... 4-90
4.11.17 Design Temperature Strains................................................................................................ 4-90
4.11.18 Volume-Change Strains for Typical Building Elements. Prestressed Components........... 4-91
4.11.19 Volume-Change Strains for Typical Building Elements. Non-Prestressed Components.... 4-91
First Printing/CD-ROM Edition PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION
PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
4.11.20 Length of Structure Without Use of Expansion Joints........................................................ 4-92
4.11.21 Build-Up of Restraint Forces in Beams............................................................................... 4-93
4.11.22 Equivalent Volume-Change Strains for Typical Building Elements................................... 4-94
4.11.23 Equivalent Volume-Change Strains for Typical Building Elements................................... 4-94
4.11.24 Coefficients kf and km for Forces and Moments Caused by Volume-Change
Restraint Forces................................................................................................................... 4-95
4.11.25 Use of Design Aid 4.11.24.................................................................................................. 4-96
4.11.26 Shear-Wall Deflection......................................................................................................... 4-97
CHAPTER 5
DESIGN OF PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE COMPONENTS
Example
5.2.1.1 Use of Design Aid 5.14.1 for Determination of Non-Prestressed Reinforcement................ 5-7
5.2.1.2 Use of Design Aid 5.14.2 for Determination of Prestressing Steel
Requirements-Bonded Strand …………………………………………..……..…….……..5-8
5.2.1.3 Use of Design Aid 5.14.3 Values of fps by Stress-Strain
Relationship-Bonded Strand…………………………………………………………………5-9
5.2.1.4 Use of Design Aid 5.14.3 and Eq. 18-3 (ACI 318-05) for Partially
Prestressed Component........................................................................................................ 5-10
5.2.1.5 Design of Partially Prestressed Flange Section Using Strain Compatibility....................... 5-12
5.2.2.1 Non-Prestressed Panel Design............................................................................................. 5-17
5.2.2.2 Calculation of Critical Stresses – Straight Strands Class U Component............................. 5-19
5.2.2.3 Calculation of Critical Stresses – Single-Point Depressed Strand Class T Component...... 5-21
5.2.2.4 Tensile Force to Be Resisted by Top Reinforcement.......................................................... 5-23
5.2.2.5 Transformed Cracked Section Using Reference 4: Example 1........................................... 5-25
5.2.2.6 Transformed Cracked Section Using Reference 4: Example 2........................................... 5-28
5.2.3.1 Use of Design Aid 5.14.4 - Design Stress for Underdeveloped Strand.............................. 5-37
5.2.3.2 Moment Capacity of Component with Debonded Strands in Development Region........... 5-38
5.2.4.1 Calculation of End Reinforcement to Resist Bursting Stresses........................................... 5-40
5.2.5.1 Design of Stadium Riser for Bending.................................................................................. 5-42
5.3.1.1 Design of Shear Reinforcement – Non-Prestressed Component......................................... 5-48
5.3.2.1 Construction of Applied and Resisting Design Shear Diagrams......................................... 5-50
5.3.3.1 Use of Design Aids 5.14.5 through 5.14.7 – Graphical Solution of
Eq. 5-20 (Code Eq. 11-9)..................................................................................................... 5-53
5.3.4.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement by Eq. 5-25 and Design Aid 5.14.8.................................. 5-55
5.3.4.2 Use of Design Aid 5.14.9 – Shear Reinforcement............................................................... 5-55
5.3.5.1 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Beam................................................................... 5-56
5.4.1 Shear and Torsion Design of a Non-Prestressed Component.............................................. 5-61
5.4.2 Shear and Torsion Design of a Prestressed Concrete Component...................................... 5-64
5.5.1 L-Beam End and Ledge Design........................................................................................... 5-71
5.5.6.1 Design of a Prestressed, Pocketed Spandrel Beam.............................................................. 5-73
5.6.1 Reinforced Bearing for a Rectangular Beam....................................................................... 5-78
5.6.3.1 Reinforcement for Dapped-End Beam................................................................................ 5-81
5.7.1 Loss of Prestress.................................................................................................................. 5-85
5.8.1.1 Calculation of Initial Camber.............................................................................................. 5-89
5.8.3.1 Deflection Calculation Using Bilinear Moment-Deflection Relationship – Example 1..... 5-91
5.8.3.2 Deflection Calculation Using Bilinear Moment-Deflection Relationship – Example 2..... 5-92
5.8.3.3 Deflection Calculation Using Effective Moment of Inertia – Example 1........................... 5-93
5.8.3.4 Deflection Calculation Using Effective Moment of Inertia – Example 2........................... 5-94
5.8.4.1 Use of Multipliers for Determining Long-Term Cambers and Deflections........................ 5-95
5.8.5.1 Thermal Bow in a Wall Panel.............................................................................................. 5-97
5.8.5.2 Thermal Force and Bow in a Roof Component................................................................... 5-98
5.9.1.1 Construction of Interaction Curve for a Precast, Reinforced Concrete Column............... 5-101
5.9.1.2 Calculation of Interaction Points for a Prestressed Concrete Compression Component... 5-103
5.9.2.1 Use of Design Aids 5.14.13 and 5.14.14........................................................................... 5-104
5.9.3.1 Second-Order Analysis of an Uncracked Component....................................................... 5-107
5.9.4.1 Reinforced Concrete Corbel (Cantilever Beam Design Method)...................................... 5-111
5.9.4.2 Reinforced Concrete Corbel (Strut-and-Tie Design Method............................................. 5-113
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PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
5.9.6.1 Approximate Section Properties of an Architectural Mullion Panel................................. 5-117
5.9.7.1 Sheet Pile........................................................................................................................... 5-118
5.10.1 Shear-Wall Analysis.......................................................................................................... 5-119
5.11.1 Section Properties of Sandwich Wall Panels..................................................................... 5-124
5.12.1.1 Flexural Strength of Double-Tee Flange in Transverse Direction.................................... 5-130
5.12.2.1 General Case Illustrating Effective Resisting Widths for Concentrated Loads
on Hollow-core Decks...................................................................................................... 5-134
5.14
Design Aids........................................................................................................................................................ 5-138
5.14.1 Flexural Resistance Coefficients for Components with Non-Prestressed, Prestressed
Reinforcement, or Combinations of Both.......................................................................... 5-138
5.14.2 Coefficients K ‘u for Determining Flexural Design Strength – Bonded Prestressing Steel.5-139
5.14.3 Values of fps by Stress-Strain Relationship – Bonded Strand............................................ 5-140
5.14.4 Design Stress for Underdeveloped Strand......................................................................... 5-140
5.14.5 Shear Design by Eq. 5-20 – Straight Strands.................................................................... 5-141
5.14.6 Shear Design by Eq. 5-20 – Shallow Drape...................................................................... 5-142
5.14.7 Shear Design by Eq. 5-20 – Steep Drape.......................................................................... 5-143
5.14.8 Minimum Shear Reinforcement by Eq. 5-25..................................................................... 5-144
5.14.9 Shear Reinforcement......................................................................................................... 5-145
5.14.10 Camber Equations for Typical Strand Profiles.................................................................. 5-146
5.14.11 Moment of Inertia of Transformed Section – Prestressed Components............................ 5-147
5.14.12 Forces Required to Restrain Bowing................................................................................. 5-148
5.14.13 Use of Design Aid 5.14.14................................................................................................ 5-148
5.14.14 Coefficients kf and km for Determining Moments and Restraining Forces on
Eccentrically Loaded Columns Braced against Sidesway................................................. 5-149
5.14.15 Design Strength of Concrete Brackets, Corbels, or Haunches.......................................... 5-150
CHAPTER 6
DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS
Example 6.5.4.1 Tension Strength of Stud Groups........................................................................................ 6-16
6.5.5.1 Headed Concrete Anchor Front-Edge Failure Mode........................................................... 6-19
6.5.5.2 Headed Concrete Anchor Corner-Failure Mode.................................................................. 6-23
6.5.5.3 Headed Concrete Anchor Side-Edge Failure Mode............................................................ 6-24
6.5.5.4 Design of Bearing Seat with Headed Concrete Anchors..................................................... 6-26
6.6.1.1 Plastic Section Modulus of a Built-Up Steel Member......................................................... 6-31
6.6.3.1 Design of Steel Structural Tube in Torsion......................................................................... 6-33
6.6.5.1(a) Unstiffened Connection Angle with Headed Concrete Anchors......................................... 6-36
6.6.5.1(b) Unstiffened Connection Angle with Bolts........................................................................... 6-39
6.6.7.1 Triangular Stiffener Analysis.............................................................................................. 6-44
6.6.7.2 Triangular Stiffener Design................................................................................................. 6-44
6.7.3.1 Reinforcing Bar Weld Analysis........................................................................................... 6-47
6.7.4.1 Strength Analysis of Weld Group........................................................................................ 6-51
6.8.1 Structural Steel Corbel......................................................................................................... 6-59
6.9.1 Design of a Cazaly Hanger.................................................................................................. 6-63
6.9.2 Design of a Loov Hanger..................................................................................................... 6-66
6.11.2.1 Column Connection – Base Plate and Anchor Bolt Design................................................ 6-72
6.13.1 Cladding Connections – Reference Chapter 7, Examples 7.5.1.1 and 7.5.1.3.................... 6-76
6.13.2 Plate-and-Bar Diaphragm Shear Connection- Reference Fig. 4.8.1.................................... 6-80
6.13.3 Diaphragm-to-Wall Shear Connection – Reference Section 4.5 and 4.6............................ 6-82
6.13.4 Wall-to-Wall Tension Connection – Reference Section 4.5............................................... 6-84
6.13.5 Wall-to-Wall Shear Connection – Reference Section 4.5................................................... 6-86
6.13.6 Wall-to-Wall Shear Connection with Combined Loading – Reference Section 4.5........... 6-91
6.13.7 Ordinary Moment Frame Connection – Reference Section 4.5.......................................... 6-96
6.13.8 Deformed Bar or Reinforcing Bar Connection Plate Supporting Steel Beam..................... 6-97
6.15 Design Aids........................................................................................................................................................ 6-101
6.15.1 Allowable and Design Stress for Fillet and Partial Penetration Welds . ........................... 6-101
First Printing/CD-ROM Edition PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION
PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
6.15.2 Strength of Fillet Welds for Building Construction.......................................................... 6-101
6.15.3 Minimum Length of Weld to Develop Full Strength of Bar. Weld Parallel to
Bar Length......................................................................................................................... 6-102
6.15.4 Size of Fillet Weld Required to Develop Full Strength of Bar. Butt Weld....................... 6-103
6.15.5 Size of Fillet Weld Required to Develop Full Strength of Bar. Weld Through Hole....... 6-104
6.15.6 Strength of Bolts and Threaded Fasteners......................................................................... 6-105
6.15.7 High-Strength Coil Bolt and Coil Threaded Rod Selection Chart.................................... 6-105
6.15.8 Strength of Connection Angles. Vertical Load.................................................................. 6-106
6.15.9 Strength of Connection Angles. Horizontal Load............................................................. 6-106
6.15.10 Design of Structural Steel Haunches — Concrete Design Strength.................................. 6-107
6.15.11 Design of Structural Steel Haunches — Reinforcement Design Strength........................ 6-108
6.15.12 Column Base-Plate Thickness Requirements.................................................................... 6-109
6.15.13 Strength of Welded Headed Studs Based on Steel Strength.............................................. 6-110
6.15.14 Concrete Tension Strength of Welded Headed-Stud Assemblies..................................... 6-110
CHAPTER 7
STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE
Example 7.5.1.1 Use of ASCE 7 Method 1 for Wind-Load Determination................................................... 7-16
7.5.2.1 Use of ASCE 7 Method 2 for Wind-Load Determination................................................... 7-18
7.5.3.1 Architectural Precast Concrete Panel with Earthquake Loading......................................... 7-21
CHAPTER 8
COMPONENT HANDLING AND ERECTION BRACING
Example 8.3.1 Design of Wall Panel for Stripping..................................................................................... 8-13
8.3.2 Use of Prestressing in the Wall Panel.................................................................................. 8-17
8.5.1 Panel Shipping..................................................................................................................... 8-20
8.6.1 Erecting Wall Panels............................................................................................................ 8-24
CHAPTER 10
DESIGN FOR FIRE RESISTANCE OF PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Example 10.5.3.1 Fire Endurance of a Ribbed Panel....................................................................................... 10-7
10.5.4.1 Fire Endurance of an Assembly......................................................................................... 10-10
10.6.3.1 Fire Endurance by Rational Design................................................................................... 10-17
10.8.1 Fire Endurance by Code Tables......................................................................................... 10-22
CHAPTER 11
THERMAL AND ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES OF PRECAST CONCRETE
Example 11.1.4.1 Thermal Resistance of Wall................................................................................................. 11-4
11.1.4.2 Thermal Resistance of Roof................................................................................................ 11-4
11.1.6.1 Determination of R-Value for Sandwich Panel................................................................. 11-16
11.1.7.1 Condensation Prevention................................................................................................... 11-22
CHAPTER 12
VIBRATION DESIGN OF PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS
Example 12.6.1 Vibrations Caused by Walking............................................................................................ 12-4
12.8.1 Stadium Seat........................................................................................................................ 12-7
12.10 Vibration Isolation............................................................................................................... 12-9
CHAPTER 13
TOLERANCES FOR PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Example 13.4.1 Clearance Determination – Single-Story Industrial Building............................................ 13-28
13.4.2 Clearance Determination – High-Rise Steel-Frame Structure........................................... 13-31
PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION First Printing/CD-ROM Edition
PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
CHAPTER 15
GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION
15.1 Design Information.............................................................................................................................................. 15-2
Design Aid 15.1.1 Dead Weights of Floor, Ceilings, Roofs, and Walls............................................................ 15-2
Design Aid 15.1.2 Recommended Minimum Uniformly Distributed and Concentrated Live Loads............... 15-3
Design Aid 15.1.3 Beam Design Equations and Diagrams............................................................................... 15-5
Design Aid 15.1.4 Camber (Deflection) and Rotation Coefficients for Prestress Force and Loads............... 15-23
Design Aid 15.1.5 Moments in Beams with Fixed Ends................................................................................. 15-25
Design Aid 15.1.6 Torsion Diagrams, Reactions, and Rotations.................................................................... 15-26
Design Aid 15.1.7 Moving Load Placement for Maximum Moment and Shear............................................. 15-27
Design Aid 15.1.8 Moments, Shears, and Deflections in Beams with Overhangs.......................................... 15-28
15.2 Material Properties – Concrete........................................................................................................................... 15-29
Design Aid 15.2.1 Concrete Modulus of Elasticity as Affected by Concrete Density and Strength............... 15-29
15.3 Material Properties – Prestressing Steel............................................................................................................. 15-30
Design Aid 15.3.1 Properties and Design Strengths of Prestressing Strand and Wire.................................... 15-30
Design Aid 15.3.2 Properties and Design Strengths of Prestressing Bars....................................................... 15-31
Design Aid 15.3.3 Typical Design Stress-Strain Curve, 7-Wire Low-Relaxation Prestressing Strand.......... 15-32
Design Aid 15.3.4 Transfer and Development Lengths for 7-Wire Uncoated Strand..................................... 15-33
15.4 Material Properties – Reinforcing Bars.............................................................................................................. 15-34
Design Aid 15.4.1 Reinforcing Bar Data......................................................................................................... 15-34
Design Aid 15.4.2 Typical Bar Bends............................................................................................................. 15-35
Design Aid 15.4.3 Location of Reinforcement Confined by Stirrups or Ties................................................. 15-38
Design Aid 15.4.4 Required Development Lengths,a in., for Reinforcing Bars (Grade 60)............................ 15-39
Design Aid 15.4.5 Bar Area Equivalents in a 1-Foot-Wide Section............................................................... 15-41
15.5 Material Properties – Structural Welded-Wire Reinforcement (WWR)............................................................ 15-42
Design Aid 15.5.1 Nomenclature for Structural Welded-Wire Reinforcement............................................... 15-42
Design Aid 15.5.2 Minimum Requirements of Steel Wires in Welded-Wire Reinforcement......................... 15-42
Design Aid 15.5.3 Wires Used in Structural Welded-Wire Reinforcement................................................... 15-43
Design Aid 15.5.4 Common Styles of Welded-Wire Shear Reinforcement (ASTM A185 Plain WWR)
Used in Double-Tee Stems................................................................................................................................. 15-44
15.6 Standard Bolts, Nuts, and Washers.................................................................................................................... 15-45
Design Aid 15.6.1 Dimensions of Nuts and Bolts........................................................................................... 15-45
Design Aid 15.6.2 Dimensions of Standard Washers...................................................................................... 15-47
15.7 Welding Information.......................................................................................................................................... 15-48
Design Aid 15.7.1 Weld Symbols Commonly Used in Precast Concrete Construction.................................. 15-48
Design Aid 15.7.2 Typical Welded Joints in Precast Concrete Construction.................................................. 15-49
Design Aid 15.7.3 Properties of Weld Groups Treated as Lines (tw = 1)........................................................ 15-51
15.8 Section Properties............................................................................................................................................... 15-52
15.8.1 Properties of Geometric Sections...................................................................................... 15-52
15.8.2 Plastic Section Moduli and Shape Factors......................................................................... 15-57
15.9 Metric Conversion.............................................................................................................................................. 15-58
15.9.1 Metric Calculations and Example...................................................................................... 15-58
15.9.2 Conversion from U.S. Customary Units to International System (SI).............................. 15-59
15.9.3 Preferred SI Units and U.S. Customary Equivalents......................................................... 15-61
15.9.4 Concrete Stress Coefficients.............................................................................................. 15-61
First Printing/CD-ROM Edition PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION
PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE: APPLICATIONS CHAPTER 1 1
CHAPTER 1
PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE:
APPLICATIONS
1.1 General........................................................................................................................................................................1-2
1.1.1 History of Precast, Prestressed Concrete in North America.........................................................................1-2
1.1.2 Features and General Principles....................................................................................................................1-4
1.1.3 Sustainability and LEED Considerations......................................................................................................1-4
1.1.4 Common Products.........................................................................................................................................1-5
1.2 Applications.................................................................................................................................................................1-8
1.2.1 Building Structures.......................................................................................................................................1-8
1.2.1.1 Total-Precast-Concrete Systems..................................................................................................1-8
1.2.1.2 Precast Concrete Cladding..........................................................................................................1-9
1.2.1.3 Residential Buildings.................................................................................................................1-12
1.2.1.4 Justice Facilities.........................................................................................................................1-13
1.2.1.5 Office Buildings........................................................................................................................1-13
1.2.1.6 Warehouses and Industrial Buildings........................................................................................1-14
1.2.1.7 Educational Facilities................................................................................................................1-15
1.2.1.8 Other Building Structures..........................................................................................................1-17
1.2.2 Parking Structures.......................................................................................................................................1-17
1.2.3 Stadiums/Arenas.........................................................................................................................................1-19
1.2.4 Bridges........................................................................................................................................................1-20
1.2.5 Other Structures and Applications..............................................................................................................1-23
1.3 Production Process....................................................................................................................................................1-23
1.3.1 Structural Components versus Architectural Components.........................................................................1-24
1.3.2 Long-Line, Multi-Piece Forms versus Single-Piece Forms........................................................................1-24
1.3.3 Prestressed Components versus Non-Prestressed Components..................................................................1-24
1.3.4 Pretensioned Components versus Post-Tensioned Components................................................................1-25
1.3.5 Production Limitations................................................................................................................................1-26
1.4 References.................................................................................................................................................................1-27
PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION First Printing/CD-ROM Edition 1–1
1 CHAPTER 1 PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE: APPLICATIONS
1.1 General and persistence of a few extraordinary individuals.
Following completion of the Walnut Lane Memorial
1.1.1 istory of Precast, Prestressed
H Bridge, American engineers and the construction industry
Concrete in North America enthusiastically embraced prestressed concrete. While many
of the early applications remained in bridge construction, such
The growth of precast and prestressed concrete is a story of
as the lower Tampa Bay crossing now known as the Sunshine
the vision and daring of a few notable people. These people
Skyway, American engineers and contractors were simulta-
took a new idea and maximized its potential by modifying
neously conceiving new devices, improving techniques, and
and improving existing methods, conceiving new methods,
developing new materials for all types of structures.
and inventing new devices, all with a focus on mass produc-
The 1950s were the years that brought into focus the seven-
tion. An excellent portrayal of the beginnings and the growth
wire strand, long-line beds (Fig. 1.1.2), admixtures, high-
of precast and prestressed concrete in North America and
strength concrete, vacuum concrete, steam curing, and many
the early pioneers is given in a series of papers1 that were
other innovations. With these developments, coupled with the
developed to commemorate the 25-year silver jubilee of the
technical and logistical support provided by PCI (chartered in
founding of the Prestressed Concrete Institute. A similar pub-
1954), the industry grew, and the applications of precast and
lication2 was developed at the 50-year golden anniversary of
prestressed concrete began to appear in an impressive variety
the Institute, which is now known as the Precast/Prestressed
of structures. See chapter 9 for information related to materi-
Concrete Institute (PCI).
als used in the precast, prestressed concrete industry.
The most important event leading to the launching of the
Development of standard products was one of the major
precast/prestressed concrete industry in North America was
activities through the 1950s and the 1960s. Early in the
the construction in 1950 of the famed Walnut Lane Memo-
1960s, the federal government–sponsored program Operation
rial Bridge in Philadelphia, Pa. (Fig. 1.1.1). From technical
Breakthrough led to the introduction of different high-rise,
and historical perspectives, it is both surprising and fascinating
precast concrete building types for housing. As part of this
that the Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge was constructed of pre-
program, a significant testing program was conducted by the
stressed concrete. There was very little published information
Portland Cement Association to establish design principles to
on the subject and there was a total lack of experience with
prevent progressive failure and to ensure the safety of high-
linear prestressing in this country at that time. Furthermore, the
rise precast buildings. These rules were adopted into the ACI
length of the bridge span (the main span of the structure was
318 building code as early as 1963 and have been expanded
160 ft long) involved would have been a daring venture in the
upon since. The basis for this handbook is ACI 318-05.3
late 1940s anywhere in the world. The bridge became a reality
In the late 1970s, low-relaxation strand was introduced,
through a fortunate sequence of events and the vision, courage,
which reduced the loss of prestress force due to relaxation in
Fig. 1.1.2 Long-line, prestressed, double-tee cast-
ing bed is one key to both economy and quality.
Fig. 1.1.1 The Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge was the recipient of the 1978 American
Society of Civil Engineer’s Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Award.
1–2 First Printing/CD-ROM Edition PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION
PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE: APPLICATIONS CHAPTER 1 1
the strand, thus allowing more efficient use of prestressing and During the 1980s, both engineers and owners recognized
resulting in longer spans and smaller sections. Larger strand that durability is an important aspect of a structure. The pre-
sizes have been made available as well, such as 0.6-in.-diam cast and prestressed concrete industry responded by taking
eter strand. advantage of one of its natural strengths. Plant-cast concrete
In the field of bridges, there was the development of spliced is more durable than site-cast concrete because it can be cast
girders, segmental bridges (Fig. 1.1.3), cable-stayed bridges with lower water–cementitious materials ratios and under
(Fig. 1.1.4), and cantilevered girder bridges. controlled conditions. This natural durability was enhanced
Fig. 1.1.3 Precast concrete segmental construction takes advantage of all of the benefits of precast concrete and special erec-
tion techniques to create significant bridges for the United States' highway system.
Fig. 1.1.4 Precast concrete proved to be a key
element in completing the Arthur Ravenel Jr.
(Cooper River) Bridge in Charleston, S.C., in
a cost-effective manner. It is the longest cable-
stayed bridge in North America. Photograph by
Rob Thompson/SCDOT.
PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION First Printing/CD-ROM Edition 1–3
1 CHAPTER 1 PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE: APPLICATIONS
with the development of admixtures that make the concrete reduced life cycle costs.
matrix more impermeable, which inhibits steel corrosion. • With prestressing, components have greater span-to-depth
Pretopped double-tees were developed for parking structures ratios, enhanced performance, and less material usage.
to maximize the benefits of the durability of precast, pre- • Aesthetic flexibility, achieved by the variety of tex-
stressed concrete at the wearing surface. tures, colors, finishes, and inset options that are avail-
The past few decades have seen the development of more able and can mimic granite, limestone, brick, and other
efficient structural sections and more complex architec- materials in virtually any shape and configuration.
tural shapes and surface treatments. The increasing demands • Acoustical control, which results in pleasant work and
of owners and architects for quality finishes has led to the living conditions for inhabitants and users.
development of new surface textures and surface treatments. • Thermal and energy efficiency, due to the material’s
Thin-set brick and stone-faced panels, as well as textures and high thermal mass, which can be enhanced further
colors of infinite variety, have been developed. Emerging with the use of insulated sandwich panels.
material technologies using ultra-high-strength concrete, self- • Sustainability by efficiently using materials and energy
consolidating concrete, polymers, carbon fibers, and high- resources to minimize their depletion.
strength steels continue to improve the capabilities of the indus- • Improved quality control resulting from being manu-
try. factured under plant-controlled conditions.
With the consolidation of the model building codes and the • Modular construction and design capabilities lend-
incorporation of the National Earthquake Hazard Reduction ing well to future reuse of systems for a variety of
Program (NEHRP) provisions into the International Build- functions.
ing Code and the ASCE 7 load standard, design of precast • Ability to design redundancy into the building systems
concrete structures for earthquake loading has become a new to provide blast resistance and structural integrity.
priority in much of the United States. PCI and its producer
members have met this challenge with a sustained program To fully realize these benefits and gain the most economi-
of seismic research and the development of seismic systems cal and effective use of the material, the following general
and connections that recognize the unique characteristics of principles are offered:
precast construction.
• Precast concrete is basically a simple-span material.
1.1.2 Features and General Principles
However, continuity can be, and often is, effectively
Precasting concrete in PCI-Certified Plants ensures the achieved with properly engineered connection details
manufacture of high-quality architectural and structural prod- with and without the use of field-cast concrete.
ucts. Precasting also facilitates production of a wide variety • Sizes and shapes of components should consider pro-
of shapes and sizes, and the use of prestressing substan- duction, hauling, and erection techniques.
tially extends the span capability of the products. Similarly, • Concrete is a massive material. This is an advantage
prestressing, defined by ACI 318-05 as “concrete in which for such matters as stability under wind and seismic
internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential ten- loads, thermal changes, vibration, and fire resistance.
sile stresses in concrete resulting from loads,” can be used to • Maximum economy is achieved with maximum rep-
enhance the structural capabilities of a concrete component. etition. Standard or repetitive sections should be used
These capabilities enable architects and engineers to achieve whenever possible.
highly innovative and economically competitive buildings • The most efficient and economical use is largely
and other structures. dependent on an effective structural layout and care-
This handbook serves as the primary reference for the fully conceived connection details.
design and use of precast and prestressed concrete structures. • The effects of volume changes caused by creep, shrink-
This chapter enumerates some of the important and unique age, and temperature change and the potential restraint
features and benefits of precast and prestressed concrete. of these effects must be considered in every structure.
These include the following: • Architectural precast concrete panels can be used as
cladding as well as load-bearing components. They
• Speed of construction resulting from the ability to can be used to support both gravity and lateral loads.
begin casting components for the superstructure while • Prestressing improves the economy and performance
foundation work is in progress, and being able to erect of precast concrete components, but is usually only
the superstructure year round without delays caused by economically feasible with standard shapes that are
harsh weather or additional curing requirements. capable of being cast in long-line beds.
• Design flexibility from the long-span capabilities
1.1.3 Sustainability and LEED Considerations
result in larger open areas in buildings and fewer piers
in bridges. Precast concrete components can contribute to sustain-
• Fire resistance, which provides improved safety and able designs and in meeting standardized requirements for
reduced insurance premiums. environment-friendly designs. Sustainability and other terms
• Durability, which allows the material to have a long such as “environmental friendliness” and “green buildings”
service life, in some cases more than 100 years, and have become watchwords for owners and architects when
1–4 First Printing/CD-ROM Edition PCI DESIGN HANDBOOK/SEVENTH EDITION
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