Overview of

Microprocessors
Daniel Gracias V. Esquejo, CCpE, LPT, ECT
Introduction to Microprocessors
• What is a Microprocessor?
• A revolutionary technological innovation in electronics since the
transistor.
• An integrated circuit that functions as the CPU of a microcomputer.
• Key Applications
• Sophisticated process controllers
• Supervisory control equipment
• Simple game machines and toys
• Essential for every electronics engineer and designer.
Microcomputer vs. Microprocessor
• What is a Microcomputer?
• A less powerful, slower, and smaller version of a mini computer.
• Primarily suited for dedicated applications due to its low cost and small
size.
• The Microcomputer System
• Comprises three basic parts:
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. Input/Output (I/O) Devices
3. Memory
• The Microprocessor is the CPU of the microcomputer system.
The Microprocessor Architecture
• Functional Units
• The internal structure of a microprocessor is known as its architecture.
• It reads, decodes, and executes instructions from memory.
• It performs arithmetic and logical operations on data.
• Key Components
• Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU)
• Internal Registers
• Instruction Decoder and Control Unit
• Busses (Address, Data, Control)
Understanding the Busses
• Busses as Data Highways
• A bus is a group of wires that allows the exchange of binary information (words)
between components.
• Address Bus
• Unidirectional: Transmits the address of a memory location or I/O device to be
accessed.
• Allows the processor to select the target device.
• Data Bus
• Bidirectional: Used to send and receive data to and from memory and I/O
devices.
• Control Bus
• Transmits and receives control signals to coordinate operations between the
microprocessor and other devices.
Inside the Microprocessor: Key Registers
• Accumulator (Acc): An 8-bit register for arithmetic and logical
operations; stores the result.
• General Purpose Registers (B, C, D, E, H, L): Used for temporary data
storage. Can be used individually or in pairs.
• Instruction Register (IR): Holds the next instruction to be executed,
which is then fed to the instruction decoder.
• Program Counter (PC): A 16-bit register that holds the address of the
next instruction to be fetched.
• Stack Pointer (SP): A 16-bit register used to manage a stack in
memory, often for subroutines.
• Status Register (Flags): Flip-flops that indicate conditions after an
operation (e.g., zero, sign, carry).
Semiconductor Memories
• What is Memory?
• Stores programs (instructions) and data.
• Connected to the microprocessor via busses.
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Also known as Read/Write Memory (RWM).
• Volatile: Loses its contents when power is off.
• Used for storing information that changes during operation (data, results).
• Read-Only Memory (ROM)
• Non-volatile: Contents are permanent and cannot be altered during operation.
• Types include Mask ROM, Programmable ROM (PROM), Electrically Alterable
ROM (EAROM), and Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM).
Peripheral Interfacing
• Purpose: To connect I/O devices (peripherals) to the microprocessor.
• Interface Functions:
• Buffering: To handle incompatibility between the microprocessor and the
peripheral.
• Address Decoding: To select a specific peripheral.
• Command Decoding: For peripherals that perform actions other than data
transfer.
• Timing and Control: To coordinate all functions.
• Data Transfer Methods:
• Programmed Data Transfer: Controlled by a software routine; used for small,
slow data transfers.
• Direct Memory Access (DMA): Controlled by the peripheral hardware; used for
large block data transfers.
Software and Programming Languages
Software: A set of programs written for a computer system.
• Machine Language (ML):
• Binary form (0s and 1s) that a computer can directly process.
• Assembly Language (AL):
• Uses alphanumeric symbols (mnemonics) to represent instructions.
• Easier to write than ML, but requires an Assembler to translate it into ML.
• High-Level Language (HLL):
• Languages like Fortran, C, Pascal.
• One statement corresponds to several ML instructions.
• Requires a Compiler to translate the program into ML.
• Software Tools: Assembler, Compiler, Editor, and System Monitor.
Microprocessor Chronology & Performance
• Key Milestones:
• 1971: Intel 4004 (first 4-bit microprocessor).
• 1973: Intel 8008 (first 8-bit microprocessor).
• 1979-present: Evolution to 16-bit and 32-bit processors (e.g., Intel 8086,
Zilog Z8000, Pentium series).
• Performance Metrics:
• Transistors: Number has steadily increased, leading to higher
performance.
• Clock Speed: The rate at which the chip operates (MHz or GHz).
• Data Width: The size of data the ALU can process at once (e.g., 8-bit, 32-
bit).
• MIPS: Millions of Instructions Per Second; a measure of performance.
Manufacturing Technologies
• MOS Technology (Metal-Oxide Semiconductor)
• Most common technology for microprocessors.
• Advantages: Higher component density and lower manufacturing cost.
• Bipolar Technology
• Used for special applications that require high speeds.
• Disadvantages: Lower component density and larger size.
• Often made in a "bit-slice" configuration.
• Key MOS Sub-types:
• PMOS: Older technology, now obsolete.
• NMOS: Main technology for low-cost microprocessors today.
• CMOS: Lower power dissipation; used for military and aerospace applications.