Light 45

So far we have only talked about light travelling in a straight line. In this chapter, we will
discuss the bending of light and how it occurs. We will also discuss spherical (curved) mirrors
and the splitting of white light into its components.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
1. Put a straw into a glass. Then, pour some water into the glass. The appearance of the straw will
change. The part dipped in water will seem bent.

2. Put a coin into a bowl, and slowly pour water into the bowl. The coin will appear to rise or come
closer.

Fig. 5.1 Refraction makes the straw look bent. Fig. 5.2 Refraction makes the coin appear closer.

These things happen because light bends, or the direction of light changes, when it moves from
one medium into another. Anything through which light can travel is called a medium. Glass,
air, water and vacuum are all mediums through which light can travel. The bending of light
as it passes from one medium to another is called the refraction of light. This is in contrast to
reflection, in which light bounces back into the same medium.

45
46 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

You can actually see the refraction of light by doing this simple activity. Fill part of a glass bottle or
jar with water. Add a few drops of milk to the water (this will help you see a ray of light travelling in
it). Insert a lit joss stick (agarbatti) into the bottle for a short while, to trap some smoke, and then
close the bottle. This will help you see the ray in the air above the water. Let a ray of light from a
laser pointer or a powerful torch pass through the bottle, as shown in Figure 5.3(a). The ray will bend
at the surface of the water. Change the angle at which the ray strikes the surface of the water. You
will notice two things.
1. How much the ray bends depends on the angle at which it strikes the water.
2. When the ray is perpendicular to the surface, it does not bend.

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.3 (a) Light bends when it strikes the surface obliquely, (b) but not when it is perpendicular to the surface.

HOW REFRACTION OCCURS

Why does refraction occur, and in what manner does light bend when it travels from one
medium to another? These are some of the questions we will explore in this section.

Light bends when it passes from one medium to another because it moves with different
speeds in different mediums. It moves the fastest through vacuum, with a speed of
299,792,458 m/s (about 300,000 km/s). It moves a bit slower through air, much slower through
water, and slower still through glass. When light travels from one medium to another, it is
this change in its speed that makes it change its direction.
This is similar to the way a strolley or pram turns when one
of its wheels moves from a paved path to, say, a lawn. The
wheel that moves on to the lawn slows down, so the strolley
or pram turns.

Ray Diagrams
As in the case of reflection, the path taken by light before and
after refraction is represented with the help of ray diagrams.
Figure 5.4 is a ray diagram showing the path taken by a ray
of light as it passes from air to glass. Fig. 5.4
 Light 47

• PQ is the boundary or surface of separation between the two mediums.

• AO, the ray travelling towards the boundary, is the incident ray.
• CD, which is perpendicular to the boundary at the point of incidence, is the normal
to the boundary.
• OB, the ray moving away from the boundary after refraction, is the refracted ray.
• i, the angle between the incident ray and the normal, is the angle of incidence.
• r, the angle between the refracted ray and the normal, is the angle of refraction.

Refractive Index
The amount of refraction that occurs when light passes from one medium into another depends
on the nature of the two mediums. To be more specific, it depends on the speeds with which
light travels in the two mediums. For example, light bends more while passing from air to
glass than while passing from air to water. This is because the speed of light in glass is less than
the speed of light in water.

A ratio called the refractive index determines the degree to which light bends while passing
from one medium to another. It is denoted by n, and defined as follows.

speed of light in the medium from which light travels

Refractive index = speed of light in the medium into which light travels $

Thus, the refractive index of water with respect to air would be

speed of light in air
airnwater =
speed of light in water $

EXAMPLE The speed of light in air is 3 # 10 8 m/s and that in glass is 2 # 10 8 m/s. Find the refractive
index of glass with respect to air.
To calculate the refractive index of glass with respect to air, we consider light to be
travelling from air to glass.
speed of light in the medium from which light travels
Refractive index = speed of light in the medium into which light travels $

speed of light in air 3 # 10 8 m/s =

` n = = 1.5.
air water speed of light in water 2 # 10 8 m/s

Denser and rarer mediums

Since refractive index is a ratio of the speed of light in two mediums, we must always mention
the mediums whenever we refer to it. To make things easier, vacuum is chosen as the medium
with which all other mediums are compared. This is because light travels the fastest through
vacuum. The refractive index of a medium is then defined as the ratio of the speed of light in
vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.
48 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

speed of light in vacuum

Refractive index of a medium = speed of light in the medium $

c
This is written in symbol as n= v,

where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of light in the medium.
A look at Table 5.1 will tell you that the refractive index Table 5.1 Some refractive indexes
of air is very close to 1. This is because the speed of light Medium Refractive index
in air is very nearly the same as that in vacuum. Hence, Air 1.0003 (almost)
for all practical purposes air is chosen as the medium of Water 1.33
reference. Thus, instead of saying “the refractive index Alcohol 1.36
of glass with respect to air is 1.5”, we simply say “the Kerosene 1.42
refractive index of glass is 1.5”, or “nglass is 1.5”.
Types of glass 1.5–1.7
When we compare transparent mediums, we call those Diamond 2.42
with higher values of refractive index optically denser
than those with lower values of refractive index. For example, water is optically denser than
air but optically rarer than glass. Diamond is optically denser than most transparent mediums.
The degree to which light bends while passing from one medium to another depends on the
optical densities of the mediums.

Rules of Refraction
Let us go back to the activity with the glass bottle. You already know one of the rules of
refraction.
1. Light bends while travelling from one medium to another only if it is incident on the
boundary at an angle to the normal. It does not bend if it is incident perpendicular to
the boundary, or along the normal.

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.5 (a) Light travelling from a rarer to a denser medium bends towards the normal. (b) Light travelling from a denser
to a rarer medium bends away from the normal.
 Light 49

2. If you imagine a normal to the surface of the water where the beam of light strikes
it, you will realise that the ray of light bends towards the normal as it passes into
the water. This observation holds whenever light travels from an optically rarer to an
optically denser medium. Light bends towards the normal when it travels from an
optically rarer to a denser medium.
3. If you shine the light at the bottom of the bottle, you will notice that the ray bends away
from the normal as it travels from water to air. This too is a general rule. Light bends
away from the normal while travelling from an optically denser to a rarer medium.
4. There is another rule that will become clear as you read on. If light follows a certain
path while travelling from a point A in one medium to a point B in another medium
then it will follow the same path while travelling from B to A. In other words, it will
retrace its path. Thus, when you draw a ray diagram to trace the path of light from one
medium to another, all you have to do is to reverse the direction of the arrows to show
the path of light from the second medium to the first. In other words, ray diagrams are
reversible. They remain valid if all the arrowheads are reversed.

Fig. 5.6 Light retraces its path while travelling from one medium to another and back.

EFFECTS OF REFRACTION
We are now in a position to understand why an
object appears bent when it is immersed in water.
Rays of light from the part of the object that is
immersed bend away from the normal as they
travel from water to air. So, when they reach our
eyes we see an image that is displaced from where
the object really is.

A coin placed at the bottom of a bowl seems

to rise when you pour water into the bowl for a
similar reason. Rays of light from the coin bend
Fig. 5.7 The print on a sheet of paper appears
in such a way that the coin appears closer than it raised (closer) when seen through a slab
really is. In the same way, a pool of water appears of glass.
50 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

shallower than it really is, and the print on a sheet of paper appears raised when seen through
a slab of glass.

Fig. 5.8

Refraction by a Glass Slab

So far we have discussed what happens when light bends once, either while travelling from a
rarer to a denser medium or from a denser to a rarer medium. What happens when it bends
twice, say, while travelling from air to glass and then from glass to air?
Fix a sheet of white paper on a thick piece of cardboard (or any other firm surface). Place a
rectangular slab of glass on the paper and trace its outline with a sharpened pencil. Remove the slab
and draw a line AB at an angle to one of the longer sides of the rectangle. Fix two pins P1 and P2
on the line, as shown. Put the slab back on its outline. Close one eye and look at the pins from the
other side of the slab. Move your head sideways until the images appear in line. Fix two more pins
P3 and P4, one behind the other in line with the images of P1 and P2 . Remove the slab and the pins.
Draw the line CD through the points marking the positions of P3 and P4 . Join BC. This is obviously
the path taken by the ray of light through the slab. Draw normals at B and C and measure the angles
of incidence and refraction at the boundaries of glass and air.

Fig. 5.9 The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.

 Light 51

You will notice that +i = +rl and +r = +il . The angle rl is called the angle of emergence,
and CD is the emergent ray. Thus, the incident and emergent rays are parallel. We can then
conclude that when a ray of light passes through a rectangular slab of glass, it emerges parallel
to and shifted from its original path.
You can also confirm that a ray of light retraces its path by reversing the direction of the
incident ray. All you will need to do is to fix two pins on CD and find their images from the
other side. You will get the same ray diagram, with the arrows in the opposite direction.

Refraction by a Prism
A prism is a piece of glass that has a triangular cross
section formed by three rectangular faces. In other
words, it has two triangular surfaces and three rectangular
surfaces. The rectangular faces are the refracting surfaces
and the angle made by two of these surfaces with each
other is called the angle of the prism (Figure 5.10).
Figure 5.11(a) shows what happens when a ray of light
enters a prism through one of the refracting surfaces. It
undergoes refraction at the air–glass boundary, travels
through the glass, and undergoes refraction again at the
glass–air boundary. The result is that the emergent ray
Fig. 5.10 A prism has a triangular cross
bends towards the base of the prism. section and three rectangular
faces.
You can trace the path of a ray through a prism by
following the method you used in the case of a glass slab. Trace the outline ABC of one of the
triangular faces of the prism on a sheet of paper. Draw the line PQ as shown in Figure 5.11(b), and fix
two pins P1 and P2 on it. Put the prism back on its outline, close one eye and look through the other
side of the prism. Fix two more pins P3 and P4 in line with the images of the first two pins. Remove
the prism and the pins and draw the line RS through the positions of P3 and P4 . Draw normals to the
sides AB and AC at Q and R and join QR. Extend PQ and RS so that they intersect at O.

The completed ray diagram will look somewhat like Figure 5.11(b). The angle d is called

Fig. 5.11 A ray of light passing through a prism bends towards the base.
52 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

the angle of deviation. It measures the deviation of the emergent ray from the incident ray. If
you measure the angle of incidence i, the angle of emergence e, the angle of the prism A and
the angle of deviation d, you will find that

+i + +e = +A + +d.

This is always true for the refraction of light by a prism.

Atmospheric Refraction
Atmospheric refraction is the bending of light as it passes through the atmosphere because
of the changing density and hence, changing refractive index of air. You can imagine the
atmosphere to consist of a large number of layers of different densities (so different refractive
indices). Remember, however, that these layers are not fixed. They keep changing due to many
reasons, for example, during the day, the air near the earth gets heated, so its density decreases.
At night, on the other hand, the earth cools as does the air in contact with it, so the density of
the air close to the earth increases.

Sunrise and sunset

Several interesting things happen due to
atmospheric refraction. One of these is that
at sunrise, we see the sun two minutes before
it actually rises above the horizon. This is
because when the rays of the sun enter the
atmosphere from space (vacuum) they bend
towards the normal, since air is optically Fig. 5.12
denser than vacuum. Figure 5.12 shows how the rays from the sun (S), which is just below the
horizon, bend as they travel through the atmosphere. When these rays enter our eyes, it appears
to us that the sun is above the horizon. Similarly, at sunset, we continue to see the sun two minutes
after it has gone below the horizon. Thus, the
day becomes longer by about four minutes.

Twinkling stars
Another effect of atmospheric refraction
is the twinkling of stars. The light from a
star is refracted by various layers of the
atmosphere before it enters our eyes. The
densities of these layers keep changing
because of atmospheric disturbances.
So, the amount by which the rays bend
keeps changing and the position of the
star appears to change. This is what makes Fig. 5.13 Stars twinkle because the densities of the layers
a star twinkle. Heavenly bodies that are of the atmosphere keep changing.
 Light 53

closer to us, such as the moon and the planets, do not twinkle. This is because they look much
bigger, so our eyes can make adjustments for the apparent shifts in their positions because of
atmospheric refraction.

DISPERSION
You already know that sunlight, which normally appears white, is actually made up of lights
of seven colours. Under certain conditions, these colours split up and we see them separately.
The separation of white light into its constituent colours is called dispersion. The band of
colours that white light separates into is called the spectrum of white light. The colours appear
in the sequence: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. You can remember the
sequence as VIBGYOR.

Rainbows are an example of dispersion occurring in nature. They form when white light is
refracted and reflected inside tiny drops of water in the atmosphere. One can sometimes see
rainbow colours in soap bubbles, raindrops or in the spray near a fountain or waterfall. The
bending of light by the refracting surfaces of a prism can also make white light split into its
constituent colours.
You can see white light split up into its constituent colours by using a prism, or a mirror placed in
a vessel of water. If you use a prism, let a narrow beam of sunlight fall at an angle on one of the
refracting surfaces. Place the prism near a wall so that you can see the band of coloured light that
emerges from the opposite surface. If you use a mirror, place it at a slant in a shallow vessel half-
filled with water. Shine a torch or let a beam of sunlight fall on the part of the mirror immersed in water.

Fig. 5.14 Spectrum produced (a) by a prism and (b) by water and mirror. (c) The spectrum of white light

Why does dispersion occur? It occurs because the refractive index of a medium is slightly
different for lights of different colours. For example, the refractive index of glass is greater for
violet light than for red light. So, when white light passes through a prism, the violet component
bends more than the red component. This makes the two colours separate as the light comes
out from the prism.
54 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

If dispersion occurs because the components of white light are refracted through different
angles in mediums like glass and water, why do we not see rainbow colours all the time? The
answer is, dispersion occurs only when lights of different colours move in slightly different
directions after refraction. In other cases, for example, in the case of white light passing through
a rectangular slab of glass, the lights of different colours emerge parallel to each other.

SPHERICAL MIRRORS
In Class 7, we discussed images formed by plane (flat) surfaces, in particular plane mirrors.
You may remember that an image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect, of the same size
as the object, at the same distance from the mirror as is the object, and laterally inverted. Let us
now discuss images formed by curved reflecting surfaces.

Fig. 5.15 Images formed by the curved surfaces of a spoon

Use a new stainless steel spoon for this activity. Bring the convex side (the side that curves outwards)
of the spoon near an object. You will see an erect image of the object. If you turn the spoon so that
its concave side (the side that curves inwards) faces the object, you will see an inverted image of
the object (Figure 5.15).

Mirrors with curved surfaces are called spherical mirrors. When the reflecting surface of
a mirror bulges outwards, it is called a convex mirror. When the reflecting surface curves
inwards, the mirror is called a concave mirror. Before we discuss the kinds of images that are
formed by spherical mirrors, we must know a few terms related to such mirrors. It will be
easier to understand these terms if you think of a spherical mirror as a part of a hollow sphere.

• The centre of the imaginary sphere of which the mirror is a part is called the centre
of curvature, denoted by C.
• The radius of the imaginary sphere of which the mirror is a part, is called the
radius of curvature, R.
 Light 55

• The centre of the mirror is called its pole, denoted by P.

• A diameter of the sphere (of which the mirror is a part) passing through the pole
is called the principal axis of the mirror. The principal axis extends beyond the
sphere in both directions.
• The point on the principal axis that is midway between the pole and the centre of
curvature of the mirror is called its focus (F).
• The distance between the pole and the focus is called the focal length ( f ) of the
R
mirror. Obviously, f = 2 $

Fig. 5.16 Parts of spherical mirrors

Reflection by a Spherical Mirror

Rays of light reflected by spherical mirrors follow certain simple rules. Remembering these
rules will help you trace the reflected rays.
1. A ray of light incident at the pole is
reflected as in a plane mirror. In other
words, the angle between the incident
ray and the principal axis is equal to
the angle between the reflected ray
and the principal axis. This is true for
Fig. 5.17
a concave mirror as well as a convex
mirror.
2. A ray of light that (a) passes
through the centre of curvature
of a concave mirror or (b) moves
towards the centre of curvature of
a convex mirror, retraces its path
after reflection. In other words, the
incident ray and reflected ray move Fig. 5.18
along the same line, in opposite
directions.
56 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

3. After reflection, a ray of light parallel

to the prinpal axis (a) passes through
the focus of a concave mirror, and
(b) appears to diverge from (move
away from) the focus of a convex
mirror.
Fig. 5.19
This is why the focus is often defined
as the point where rays parallel to the principal axis (a) converge (meet) after reflection
from a concave mirror, or (b) appear to diverge from after reflection at a convex mirror.
4. A ray of light (a) passing through
the focus of a concave mirror or
(b) moving towards the focus of a
convex mirror, travels parallel to
the principal axis after reflection.
Fig. 5.20
Images Formed by a Concave Mirror
In general, the nature of the image formed by a mirror depends on the nature of the mirror
and the position of the object. The position of the image also depends on these two things. You
have already learnt that the image formed by a plane mirror is erect, virtual and of the same
size as the object. In the case of a concave mirror, the nature and size of the image change with
the distance of the object from the mirror.

1. When the object is beyond the centre of

curvature (C), the image is real, inverted
and smaller than the object. It forms
between the focus (F) and C.
2. In particular, when the object is at infinity,
or far away, like the sun, a very small
(almost point-sized) real image forms at
the focus. This is why concave mirrors
are used to concentrate the rays of the sun
(or bring them to a focus) in solar heaters Fig. 5.21 Object beyond C
(see Figure 5.22).
3. As the object moves closer to C, the image
becomes larger. When it is at C, the image, which also forms at C, is real, inverted and
of the same size as the object (Figure 5.23).
4. When the object is between C and F, the image is real, inverted and larger than the
object. The position of the image is beyond C (Figure 5.24).
5. When the object is at F, the image forms at infinity, or it is very far from the mirror. If
you look at Figure 5.25, you will see that the reflected rays from the mirror are parallel.
This is why concave reflectors are used to produce a parallel beam of light in torches.
 Light 57

Fig. 5.22 Solar heaters use concave mirrors to concentrate the rays of the sun.

Fig. 5.23 Object at C Fig. 5.24 Object between C and F

Fig. 5.25 The bulb is at the focus of the reflector in a torch, so the beam of light produced is almost parallel.

6. When the object is between F and P, the image is virtual, erect and magnified
(Figure 5.26). This is why concave mirrors are used as ‘shaving mirrors’ or ‘compact
mirrors’. When such a mirror is held close to the face, it produces a larger image, which
helps one see small details.
58 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

Fig. 5.26 Concave mirrors are used as ‘shaving mirrors’ or ‘compact mirrors’ because they produce a magnified image
when held close to the face.

If you look carefully at the ray diagrams for the formation of images by a concave mirror,
you may notice something helpful. The general rules for the formation of images are:

• When two rays start from a point O, move along different paths, and meet
(intersect) again at a point I, a real image of O forms at I (Figure 5.23).
• If one or both the rays have to be produced backwards to make them intersect at
I, a virtual image of O forms at I (Figure 5.26).

Images Formed by a Convex Mirror

The image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual, erect and smaller than the object.
Convex mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles. They are more helpful than plane
mirrors in this case because they form smaller images, and hence, give a wider view.

Fig. 5.27 (a) Convex mirrors produce images that are erect and smaller than the object.
(b) Hence, they are used as rear-view mirrors.
 Light 59

• Anything through which light can travel is called a medium. Vacuum, glass, air and water
are all mediums through which light can travel.
• The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another is called refraction. The
amount of refraction (bending) that occurs depends on the nature of the two mediums.
• The refractive index of one medium with respect to another is
speed of light in the medium from which light is travelling
speed of light in the medium into which light is travelling $
• When light travels from one medium to another:
1. It bends only if it is incident at an angle to the normal.
2. It bends towards the normal while travelling from a rarer to a denser medium.
3. It bends away from the normal while travelling from a denser to a rarer medium.
4. It retraces its path while moving in the reverse direction.
• When light travels through a rectangular glass slab, the emergent ray is parallel to the
incident ray and is laterally shifted from it.
• A prism is a piece of glass that has a triangular cross section formed by three rectangular
faces. The angle between two rectangular faces is called the angle of the prism, A.
• When a ray of light passes through a prism, it bends towards the base of the prism. The angle
between the incident ray and the emergent ray is the angle of deviation, d. For refraction
through a prism, +i + +e = +A + +d.
• Atmospheric refraction is the bending of light as it passes through the atmosphere because
of the variations in the density of air. Early sunrise, delayed sunset and the twinkling of
stars are some effects of atmospheric refraction.
• The separation of white light into its constituent colours is called dispersion. The band of
colours (VIBGYOR) that light separates into is called its spectrum. Dispersion occurs because
the refractive index of a medium is slightly different for lights of different colours.
• In a convex mirror, the reflecting surface bulges outwards. In a concave mirror, the hollow
part is made reflecting.
• The centre of the imaginary sphere of which a spherical mirror is a part is called the centre
of curvature (C). The radius of the sphere is called the radius of curvature (R). The centre
of the mirror is called its pole (P). A diameter of the imaginary sphere passing through
the pole is the principal axis
of the mirror. The point lying Table 5.2 Image formed by a concave mirror
midway between P and C is Object Image
the focus (F). The distance PF
At infinity At F, real, inverted, point-sized
= focal length ( f ) = R/2.
Beyond C Between C and F, real, inverted, smaller
• When two rays start from a
point O, move along different At C At C, real, inverted, same size
paths, and meet (intersect) Between C and F Beyond C, real, inverted, larger
again at some point I, an
image of O is formed at I. Between F and P Behind mirror, virtual, erect, larger
60 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

• The nature of the image formed by a concave mirror depends on the distance of the object
from the mirror.
• The image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual, erect and smaller than the object.

Short-Answer Questions (b) It occurs when white light passes through

1. What is the refraction of light? a prism.
(c) It can be caused by the refraction of light
2. Define refractive index of a medium.
but not by the reflection of light.
3. What are real and virtual images? Give one (d) Rainbows form due to the dispersion of
example of each. white light by droplets of water.
4. What are spherical mirrors?
2. When a ray of light parallel to the principal
5. What are the characteristics of an image axis is incident on a concave mirror, the
formed by a convex mirror? reflected ray
6. If an object is placed at the centre of curvature (a) passes through C
of a concave mirror, where will its image be (b) passes through F
formed?
(c) passes midway between P and F
7. If an object is placed at the focus of a concave (d) retraces its path
mirror, where will its image be formed?
3. The image formed by a concave mirror is
8. What is the relation between the focal length
larger in size than the object. Which of the
and the radius of curvature of a spherical
statements cannot be correct?
mirror?
(a) The object lies between the focus and the
9. What is a spectrum? pole of the mirror.
Long-Answer Questions (b) The object lies between the focus and the
centre of curvature of the mirror.
1. What are the laws of refraction?
(c) The object and the image lie on the same
2. What is dispersion? Why does white light side of the principal axis.
split into its constituent colours when it
(d) The object is beyond the centre of
passes through a prism? Give an example of curvature of the mirror.
dispersion in nature.
3. What do you understand by the principal 4. The image formed by a convex mirror is
axis, radius of curvature, focal length, centre (a) inverted (b) magnified
of curvature, and focus of a spherical mirror? (c) virtual (d) real
You can use a diagram to explain.
5. Which of the following is not correct with
4. Use a diagram to show what happens when respect to all spherical mirrors?
a ray of light passes through a rectangular
(a) The pole lies on the principal axis.
slab of glass.
(b) The focal length is half of the radius of
Objective Questions curvature.
(c) Both real and virtual images can be
Choose the correct option.
formed by them.
1. Which of the following statements regarding (d) Light rays moving towards or passing
dispersion is not correct? through the centre of curvature retrace
(a) It occurs whenever light is refracted. their path after reflection.
 Light 61

6. When a ray of light moves towards the focus 2. Atmospheric refraction occurs because of
of a convex mirror, the reflected ray the varying density of air in the atmosphere.
(a) passes through C 3. Concave mirrors are used as rear-view
(b) is parallel to the principal axis mirrors in vehicles.
(c) passes through F 4. A pool of water appears shallower than it
(d) retraces the path of the incident ray really is due to the reflection of light.
Write true or false. 5. Stars twinkle due to atmospheric refraction.
1. Water is optically denser than air. 6. Concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors.
Locate the image by completing the ray diagrams.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)


62 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

You know that when something (solid, liquid or gas) is heated, its temperature rises and it
expands. In Chapter 1, we have discussed these effects of heat (energy) on matter from the
point of view of the molecules of matter that are in constant motion. We have also discussed
changes in the state of matter caused by heat. In the case of a pure substance, these changes
occur at a fixed temperature. A solid changes into a liquid at a fixed temperature, which is its
melting point and a liquid boils at a fixed temperature called its boiling point. Let us recall the
differences between evaporation and boiling before we study expansion in some detail.

EVAPORATION AND BOILING

The process of change from the liquid to the vapour state is called vaporisation. When this
change occurs at the boiling point of a liquid, it is called boiling. At temperatures below the
boiling point, it is called evaporation. Table 6.1 lists the differences between evaporation and
boiling.
Table 6.1 Differences between evaporation and boiling

Evaporation Boiling

1. It is a slow process. 1. It is a fast process.

2. It takes place only from the surface of the liquid. 2. It occurs throughout the liquid.
3. No bubbles are formed in the liquid. 3. Bubbles are formed throughout the liquid.
4. It occurs at all temperatures. 4. It occurs only at the boiling point.
5. The heat (energy) required is taken from the 5. The heat (energy) required is supplied from
liquid and its surroundings. outside.
6. Evaporation produces cooling, as the heat 6. Boiling does not produce cooling, as the heat
required for the process is supplied by the liquid required is supplied by an external source.
and its surroundings.

In Chapter 1, we discussed how evaporation cools the water stored in an earthen vessel. Can you
name an electrical appliance that makes use of the cooling caused by evaporation and explain how
it works?
A biological process makes use of cooling by evaporation to regulate our body temperature.
Explain how this process works.
62
 Heat 63

Latent Heat
A liquid requires a particular (fixed) amount of heat to change into the vapour state. This is
called latent (‘latent’ means hidden) heat because the heat gained by the liquid does not show
as a rise in the temperature of the liquid. (In Chapter 1, we discussed how the temperature
of a liquid remains constant at its boiling point despite heat being supplied to it steadily.)
The amount of heat required to change 1 kg of a substance from its liquid to its vapour state
without any change in temperature is called its latent heat of vaporisation. As we have already
discussed, this heat is released when the vapour condenses, which is why burns caused by
steam are much worse than burns caused by boiling water. The latent heat of vaporisation of
water is 2.26 # 10 6 J/kg.

It is not just a liquid that requires a fixed

amount of energy to change into the vapour
state. A solid too requires a particular amount
of energy to change into the liquid state. The
amount of heat required to change 1 kg of a
substance from its solid state to its liquid state
without any change in temperature is called
its latent heat of fusion. This heat, as we have
discussed in Chapter 1, is released when the
liquid freezes. The latent heat of fusion of ice is
3.36 # 10 5 J/kg, which is a large amount of heat.
That is why just a couple of ice cubes are enough
to cool a glass of drink. The ice takes the heat it
requires for melting from the drink and the drink Fig. 6.1 The melting ice takes away heat from the
cools. If we were to add an equal amount of cold drink.
water to the drink, the temperature of the drink
would not change much.

THERMAL EXPANSION
When a substance (be it solid, liquid or gas) is heated, its molecules become more energetic
and move farther apart, causing the substance to expand. Conversely, when a substance is
cooled, it contracts because its molecules become less energetic and move closer together. This
change in the dimensions, area or volume of a body or substance with change in temperature
is known as thermal expansion. Notice that we have said “change in the dimensions, area or
volume” and not ‘increase’. This is because in physics, contraction is referred to as negative
thermal expansion. All substances do not expand to the same degree with the same change
in temperature. The coefficient of thermal expansion measures the fractional change in the
dimensions, area or volume of a substance per 1 °C (or 1 K) change in its temperature. As we
will discuss later, in the case of solids there are three different coefficients of expansion—one
for change in length, one for change in area and one for change in volume.
64 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

Anomalous Expansion of Water

Most substances contract on cooling. Thus, the solid form of a substance generally has a higher
density than the liquid form. An exception to this is water, as the following activity will show
you.
Fill a small cup (say, the measuring cups that come with syrups or the cap of a bottle) with water up
to the brim. Put it into the freezing compartment of a refrigerator. When the water freezes, you will
notice that the surface of the ice bulges above the rim of the cup. This is because water expands
when it freezes.

Fig. 6.2 Water expands when it freezes.

When water is cooled, it contracts until the temperature reaches 4 °C. After that, it starts
expanding. This is known as the anomalous expansion of water. (The word anomalous means
different from what is normal or expected.) Since water expands below 4 °C, its density
decreases as it is cooled below this temperature. This is why ice floats on water, as do icebergs
in the sea. The density of ice is 0.9167 g/cc at 0 °C, while the density of water is 0.9998 g/cc at
the same temperature. The density of water is the greatest at 4 °C, being 1 g/cc.

The anomalous expansion of water is of great use in nature. It helps aquatic creatures
survive in winter because when the water of a lake, for example, cools, it rises to the surface,
instead of sinking to the bottom. So, when the temperature drops below the freezing point of
water, only the top layer freezes.

Expansion of Solids
When a solid is heated, there may be a change in its length, area or volume. These are known
as linear expansion, superficial expansion and volume expansion, respectively.

Linear expansion
If the length of a body is far greater than its breadth and thickness (for example, a wire), the
change in its length is much greater than the changes in its breadth and thickness when it is
heated. In fact, we can consider the changes in its breadth and thickness to be negligible in
comparison to the change in its length. This kind of expansion is known as linear expansion
and can be demonstrated by the experiment shown in Figure 6.3.
 Heat 65

Fig. 6.3

The two ends of a metal bar are fixed rigidly to supports, as shown in Figure 6.3(a). When
the rod is heated, it tends to expand along its length, but is not allowed to expand as its ends
are rigidly fixed. The rod, therefore, bends in order to expand, as shown in Figure 6.3(b).

The amount by which the length of a rod increases when it is heated depends on the material
of the rod. Rods of the same length, but of different materials show different increases in length
when their temperatures increase by the same amount. The coefficient of linear expansion
(symbol α ) of a material gives us an idea of how much a rod of the material will expand when
it is heated. It is defined as the fractional increase in length per degree change in temperature.
This means the change in length per unit length for a 1 °C change in temperature. We can write
this as

change in length 1
Coefficient of linear expansion = original length # change in temperature $

Suppose the initial length is L and the change in length is l for a change in temperature
T2 − T1 . Then we can write the equation in symbols as
l 1
α= L # − $
T2 T1
Since the units of the numerator and denominator of the first term on the right-hand side
are the same (they cancel out), the unit of the coefficient of linear expansion is °C -1 or K -1 .

Table 6.2 shows the values of the Table 6.2 Coefficient of linear expansion of some metals
coefficient of linear expansion of some Metal Coefficient of linear expansion (°C–1 or K–1)
metals. Copper 1.7 # 10
-5

It follows from Table 6.2 that for Brass 1.8 # 10

-5

the same length and the same increase Iron 1.2 # 10

-5

in temperature, an aluminium rod will Aluminium 2.5 # 10

-5

show the greatest increase in length, Silver -5

1.9 # 10
while a gold rod will show the least
Gold 0.29 # 10
-5
increase in length.
66 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

Superficial expansion
If a sheet of metal has a thickness that is negligible compared
to its length and breadth, its area increases much more than its
thickness when it is heated. In fact, the change in its thickness
can be ignored in comparison to the change in its area. This
kind of expansion is known as superficial expansion. It can be
demonstrated by the experiment shown in Figure 6.4.

The metal sheet in the figure is thin and has a hole that is
Fig. 6.4
just a little smaller in diameter than a nail. When the sheet is
heated by a burner placed under the hole, its area increases, so the size of the hole increases.
The nail then passes through the hole easily.

The coefficient of superficial expansion (denoted by β) is defined as the fractional change

in area per unit change in temperature. In other words, it is the change in area per unit area for
a 1 °C change in temperature.

change in area 1
Coefficient of superficial expansion = original area # change in temperature $

Suppose the initial area is A and the change in area is a. Then if t is the change in
temperature, we can write this equation in symbols as
a 1
β= A# t $

Volume expansion
So far, we have discussed expansion along
one dimension (length) and two dimensions
(area = length × breadth). However, usually the
changes in all the dimensions are significant
and we are interested in knowing the volume
expansion, or the change in the volume of a
solid with a change in temperature. We have
discussed an experiment to demonstrate volume
expansion in Class 7. Let us go over it in brief. Fig. 6.5 The ball and ring experiment to show
thermal expansion
The iron ball in Figure 6.5 can just pass
through a metal ring at room temperature. When it is heated to a high temperature by a burner,
it expands and can no longer pass through the ring. If the ball is cooled to room temperature,
it will pass through the ring again because then it will contract by the same amount.

The fractional change in volume per unit change in temperature is known as the coefficient
of volume expansion and is usually denoted by γ . As in the case of the linear coefficient and
the superficial coefficient, it is the characteristic of a particular material.
 Heat 67

change in volume 1
Coefficient of volume expansion = initial volume
#
change in temperature $

If the initial volume is V, the change in volume Table 6.3 Coefficient of volume expansion
is v and the change in temperature is t, we can of some materials
write this in symbols as Material Coefficient of volume
expansion (°C–1 or K–1)
v 1
γ=V # t $ Copper -5
6 # 10
The three coefficients of expansion are related Brass 1.8 # 10
-5

as follows. Iron 3.5 # 10

-5

β γ Aluminium
α= 2 = 3$ 7 # 10
-5

Mercury 18.2 # 10
-5
Table 6.3 lists some values of the coefficient of
volume expansion. Notice that mercury expands Water 20.7 # 10
-5

much more than glass. This is one of the reasons Paraffin oil 76.4 # 10
-5

why it is used in thermometers. Also, liquids Ordinary glass -5

2.5 # 10
expand more than solids. Lastly, unlike Table 6.2,
Chloroform -5
this table includes some liquids. This is because 127 # 10
only volume expansion is relevant in the case of Ether 160 # 10
-5

liquids and gases.

Common examples of the expansion of solids

1. We have discussed how gaps are left

between the rails of railway tracks to
allow for expansion. Expansion joints of a
different design are often seen on bridges.
They look like combs with interlocking
teeth.
2. In Class 7, we discussed how an iron band
is fitted over the wooden wheels of carts.
The diameter of the iron band is made
slightly smaller than that of the wooden
wheel. The band is heated so that it
expands and then slipped over the wheel.
Next, cold water is poured over the band
so that it contracts and grips the wooden
wheel tightly. This process of shrink fit
is used extensively in industries to fit Fig. 6.6 An expansion joint
different parts of machinery. It is also used
to secure the joints of boilers that contain steam at very high pressure. The rivets used
to secure such joints are heated and then hammered over the boiler joints. When they
cool, they grip the joints tightly to prevent steam from escaping.
68 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

3. We have discussed the use of a bimetallic strip in electrical heating devices, in Class 7.
A bimetallic strip consists of two strips of equal length of different metals/alloys
riveted together. When it is heated, it bends because the strips expand unequally.
This cuts off the current flow and ensures that the temperature does not rise beyond a
particular value.
4. Expansion comes in handy when it is difficult to take out the cork from a bottle or open
the (metallic) lid of a jar. Just placing the neck of the bottle in hot water or holding the
jar upside down with the lid in hot water solves the problem.
5. Expansion can be troublesome too. If boiling water is poured into a thick-walled glass
vessel, the glass vessel may crack due to the unequal expansion of the different layers
of the vessel.

Expansion of Liquids
A liquid does not possess a definite shape, so neither linear expansion nor superficial expansion
has any relevance in the case of a liquid. Only the volume of a liquid can change. However, there
is a problem with measuring the change in the volume of a liquid with change in temperature.

Apparent expansion and real expansion

A liquid cannot be heated directly. It can be heated only by heating the container in which it is
placed. When the container is heated, it expands first, and the level of the liquid in the container
falls. Gradually, the liquid also gets heated and expands and the level of the liquid in the vessel
rises. Thus, the increase in the volume of the liquid that we observe is the apparent expansion
of the liquid. It does not take into account the increase in the volume of the container. To
measure the real expansion of the liquid, we must add the increase in the volume of the vessel
to the apparent increase in the volume of the liquid.

Consider the flask shown in Figure 6.7. The initial level of the liquid
in the flask is A. When the flask is heated, the level of the liquid first falls
to B because the flask absorbs heat first and expands. Then, the liquid
gets heated and rises to C. Therefore, it appears that AC is the increase
in the level of the liquid, but the real increase in the level of the liquid
is BC.
Therefore, the real expansion of the liquid is
volume of BC = volume of AB + volume of AC.
Fig. 6.7
That is,

That
real is,
expansion of the liquid = expansion of the vessel + apparent expansion of the liquid.

Expansion of Gases
As in the case of a liquid, linear expansion and superficial expansion are not relevant in the
case of a gas. Thus, we are concerned only with the volume expansion of a gas. However,
 Heat 69

unlike the case of liquids, we do not have to take into account the increase in the volume of
the vessel while measuring the expansion of a gas. This is because gases expand so much
more than solids that the expansion of the vessel can be considered negligible compared to the
expansion of the gas.
You have done several activities to demonstrate the expansion of liquids and gases both in your
physics and chemistry lessons. Now design your own activities and demonstrate in class. At the end
of all the demonstrations, vote for the best one. You can form groups of four or five. Here are some
ideas. (Warning: Never do any activity involving hot or sharp objects without the supervision of your
teacher or an adult.)
1. Use a bottle, a balloon and a vessel of hot water to demonstrate the expansion of air.
2. Use a balloon partly filled with air and a small tub of hot water to show that air expands when
heated.
3. Use a glass jar partly filled with coloured water, a drinking straw, a sealant and a vessel filled with
hot water to show the expansion of air. (Hint: Make a hole in the lid of the jar and pass the straw
through it. The straw should dip into the water but not touch the bottom.)
4. Use a glass bottle filled with a liquid, a drinking straw, a sealant and a vessel of hot water to show
that liquids expand when heated.
5. Use a bottle, a drinking straw, a sealant, a drop of coloured water and a vessel of hot water to
show that air expands when heated. (Hint: Draw up a drop of the coloured water into the straw
and pass the straw through a hole in the cap of the bottle.)

In these activities, air had room to expand. What happens when a gas confined in a vessel
is heated and there is no room for it to expand? The pressure of the gas increases. This can be
demonstrated easily.
Fill up a balloon with air. Tie its mouth firmly. Hold it a little above a burning candle. (Do not bring
it too close to the flame.) In a while, the balloon will burst with the pressure exerted by the heated
air. You will learn later that this is a law in physics. The pressure of a gas confined in a particular
volume increases as its temperature increases.

• The process by which a substance changes from the liquid to the gaseous state is called
vaporisation.
• Boiling occurs at a particular temperature and involves the bulk of the liquid, while
evaporation is a surface phenomenon and occurs at any temperature below the boiling point.
• The amount of heat required to change 1 kg of a substance from its liquid state to its vapour
state without any change in its temperature is called its latent heat of vaporisation. This heat
is released when the vapour condenses.
• The amount of heat required to change 1 kg of a substance from its solid to its liquid state
without any change in temperature is called its latent heat of fusion. This heat is released
when the substance freezes.
70 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

• The change in the dimensions, area or volume of a body or a substance with change in
temperature is known as thermal expansion. Contraction is known as negative thermal
expansion.
• If a body whose length is large compared to its breadth and thickness is heated, there is a
much greater change in its length compared to the change in its breadth or its thickness. This
is known as linear expansion.
• The change in length per unit length for 1 °C change in temperature is known as the
coefficient of linear expansion and is usually denoted by α. This has a different value for
different materials. The unit of all the coefficients of expansion is °C –1 or K –1 .
• If a sheet of thickness negligible compared to its length and breadth is heated, there is a
far greater change in its area compared to the change in its thickness. This is known as
superficial expansion.
• The change in area per unit area for 1 °C change in temperature is known as the coefficient of
superficial expansion and is usually denoted by β. This is different for different materials.
• The change in the volume of a body or substance with a change in temperature is called
volume expansion. This is the only type of expansion that is relevant in the case of liquids
and gases.
• The change in volume per unit volume for 1 °C change in temperature is known as the
coefficient of volume expansion and is usually denoted by γ. This has a different value for
different materials.
• The three coefficients of expansion are related as, α = β/2 = γ/3.
• For liquids, real expansion = expansion of the vessel + apparent expansion of the liquid.
• In general, the thermal expansion of liquids is greater than that of solids and that of gases is
far greater than the thermal expansion of liquids. Hence, gases, in general, have the greatest
coefficients of expansion.

Short-Answer Questions Long-Answer Questions

1. Why is the word ‘latent’ used to refer to the 1. Distinguish between evaporation and
heat required to cause a change in the state boiling.
of matter? 2. Mention three ways in which we make use
2. What is the latent heat of vaporisation of a of the thermal expansion of solids and one
substance? way in which it is troublesome for us.

3. What do you understand by linear 3. Explain the real and apparent expansions of
liquids.
expansion?
4. What is the anomalous expansion of water?
4. What is the coefficient of linear expansion?
How is it useful in nature?
5. What is superficial expansion?
5. Describe an activity to show the linear
6. What is the coefficient of volume expansion? expansion of a metal rod.
 Heat 71

6. Describe an activity to show the superficial 5. The SI unit of coefficient of linear expansion
expansion of a metallic sheet. is
(a) per kelvin (b) m K–1
Objective Questions
(c) m K (d) m2 K
Choose the correct option.
1. The SI unit of latent heat is Fill in the blanks.
(a) J/g (b) J/kg 1. The latent heat of …… of a substance is the
(c) J/kg/K (d) J/K heat required to change 1 kg of it from the
2. A liquid boils solid to the liquid state without any change
in temperature.
(a) at a fixed temperature
(b) at all temperatures 2. Water expands when it is cooled …… 4 °C.
(c) at different temperatures 3. The real expansion of a liquid is …… than its
(d) when it is heated apparent expansion.
3. The pressure of a gas confined in a vessel 4. Water has the maximum density at …… .
(a) decreases as its temperature increases 5. Generally, the density of a liquid …… as its
(b) remains steady as its temperature temperature increases.
increases
Write true or false.
(c) increases with temperature
1. Heat is released when a vapour condenses.
(d) is not related to its temperature
2. α = 2β = 3γ.
4. Evaporation causes cooling because
(a) the liquid releases heat 3. The coefficient of expansion of mercury is
less than that of glass.
(b) the liquid state of a substance has less
energy than the vapour state 4. Ice releases heat when it melts.
(c) the heat required is taken from the rest 5. A bimetallic strip makes use of the fact that
of the liquid or the surroundings different metals have different coefficients of
(d) it is a surface phenomenon linear expansion.

A hygrometer is an instrument used by meteorologists to measure the

humidity (wetness) of the air. You can set one up in your classroom.
Suspend two thermometers from a stand. Wrap a moist wick around the
bulb of one of the thermometers and let the wick dip into a bowl of water.
This is to ensure that it remains moist. The temperature shown by the
thermometer with the wick will fall as water evaporates from the wick
(evaporation causes cooling). Let it become steady. Then record the
difference between the temperatures shown by the two thermometers.
This will give you an idea of the humidity of the air. When the air is
dry, water will evaporate more readily and the temperature difference
will be greater.


72 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

You have learnt that sound is produced by vibrations. You have also learnt about the properties
of a sound that help us identify it. In this chapter, we will discuss these properties in some
detail and learn about some musical instruments.

LOUDNESS
The loudness or intensity of a sound,
as you have learnt, depends on the
amplitude of the vibrations producing
the sound. The amplitude of the
vibrations of a body is the maximum
displacement of the body from its mean
position or position of rest. The SI unit
of amplitude is the metre. In Figure 7.1,
AB and AC are the amplitudes of the
vibrations of two bodies (say, strings or Fig. 7.1 The greater the amplitude, the louder is the sound.
membranes).
You can explore the relation between the amplitude
of vibrations and the loudness of the sound produced
by making your own drums. Make drums of different
sizes by stretching pieces of balloons across empty
cans, tins, etc. Strike them with a pencil or stick.
You will notice that when you strike gently, the
skin (balloon) vibrates with a small amplitude and
the sound is soft. When you strike harder, the skin
vibrates with a greater amplitude and the sound is
louder.

So, we can say that loudness depends on the Fig. 7.2

amplitude of vibrations of the source which, in turn,
depends on the power of the source. A powerful source of sound produces vibrations of a large
amplitude, while a low-power source produces vibrations of a smaller amplitude.
72
 Sound 73

We can look at it another way. When

you strike the drum hard, the skin vibrates
with greater energy. You have learnt that
sound waves are carried by the vibrations
of the molecules of air. So, when the skin
moves up and down with greater energy,
the molecules of air (that are pushed by the
skin) also vibrate (move closer together and
farther apart) with greater energy. In other
Fig. 7.3 (a) A low-energy wave (or vibration) has a smaller
words, the loudness of a sound is related
amplitude than (b) a high-energy wave.
to the energy of the waves. In Figure 7.1,
the vibrations with the amplitude AB
have less energy than the vibrations with the amplitude AC. We can represent the waves
corresponding to these vibrations as in Figure 7.3.

Unit of Loudness
The loudness of sound is measured in decibels (dB). Table 7.1 Loudness of common sounds
The decibel scale is a little strange. The softest sound Type of noise Decibel level
that the average person can make out is 0 dB. A sound Normal conversation 40
that is 10 times more powerful than that is 10 dB, Loud conversation 60
but a sound that is 100 times more powerful than the
Loud music 80
softest sound is only 20 dB, and a sound that is 1000
Discotheque (disco) 110–120
times more powerful than the softest sound is 30 dB.
On this scale, a sound of 100 dB is uncomfortably
loud, and a sound of 120 dB can damage the ears.
In fact, long periods of exposure to sound levels of even 90 dB can damage the ears. A look at
Table 7.1 will give you an idea of loudness levels in terms of decibels. Remember, however,
that loudness is something that we perceive, while amplitude, power and intensity are physical
quantities that can be measured. The human ear is more sensitive to high-pitched sounds, so
we may find a shrill sound louder, more unpleasant or more irritating than a bass sound,
though they may be of the same level in terms of decibels.

PITCH
The pitch of a sound is its sharpness or shrillness. Sharp sounds, for example, the sound of a
whistle, have a higher pitch than heavy or bass sounds, for example that of a big drum. The
bark of a pup has a higher pitch than the bark of a dog. The voice of a child has a higher pitch
than that of a man.
Make a toy guitar to find out how the pitch of the sound produced by a vibrating string can be altered.
You will need rubber bands of about the same length, but of different thicknesses; a metallic, plastic
or wooden box; and a piece of wood or a ruler. Stretch the rubber bands across the top of the (open)
box, as shown in Figure 7.4. When you pluck the rubber bands, you will notice that the thinner ones
produce sound of higher pitch.
74 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

Pass the piece of wood under the rubber bands and let it rest on the edges of the box. When you
pluck the rubber bands now, you will notice that the pitch of the sound they produce is higher. This
is because the piece of wood makes them tauter and taut strings produce sound of higher pitch than
loose strings. You can vary the pitch further by making the piece of wood stand instead of lying flat.
Another way of varying the pitch of the sound produced by a string is by changing its length. Move
the piece of wood to change the length of the rubber bands. You will notice that shorter strings
produce sounds of higher pitch than longer strings of the same thickness. Women and children sound
more high-pitched than men because their vocal cords are shorter.
If you made drums of different sizes in the preceding activity, you can explore the relation
between the size of a drum and the pitch of the sound produced by it. Smaller drums produce sound
of higher pitch.

Fig. 7.4

How musicians alter pitch

When musicians tune string instruments, they alter the pitch of the sound by rotating knoblike
things around which the strings are wound. This changes the tightness of the strings, and hence,
the pitch. The strings are also of different thicknesses. The thinner ones produce sounds of
higher pitch. While playing, musicians press different parts of the strings to alter their lengths.
In the case of wind instruments, musicians change the frequency by blocking different
parts of the pipe. This alters the length of the vibrating air column. The shorter the air column,
the higher is the frequency.

Frequency
When a source of sound (a string, the membrane of a drum, etc.) vibrates, it sets up vibrations
in the air around it. These vibrations move through the air as waves of compression (of the
molecules of air) and rarefaction, as you have learnt in Class 7. The number of vibrations that
a source of sound completes in a second is called its frequency. Naturally, the waves set up by
the source of sound will have the same frequency. In other words, the frequency of the sound
produced by a source is the same as the frequency of the source.

The frequency of a source of sound or the waves it produces is measured in hertz, written in
short as Hz. One hertz is one vibration per second. Thus, if the source completes 500 vibrations
in 1 second, its frequency and the frequency of the sound (wave) it produces is 500 Hz. The
 Sound 75

pitch of a sound depends on the frequency of its source. The higher the frequency, the higher
is the pitch.

The human ear is capable of detecting sounds within the range of approximately 20 Hz to
20000 Hz. Sounds with a frequency below the normal range of hearing (i.e., less than 20 Hz) are
known as infrasound, while sounds with a frequency above the normal audible range (i.e., more
than 20000 Hz) are known as ultrasound. Many natural phenomena, such as earthquakes and
avalanches, produce infrasonic vibrations. Many animals also produce and detect infrasound.
Whales, elephants and hippopotamuses, for example, use infrasound to communicate with
each other over long distances.

In Class 7, we discussed some uses of ultrasound. Ultrasound is used for imaging various
organs of the body, locating underwater objects, detecting defects in industrial products, and
so on. In nature, bats and whales use ultrasound to detect prey. Many insects and fish too are
capable of detecting ultrasound. Dogs can detect frequencies as high as 45000 Hz, while cats
can detect frequencies as high as 85000 Hz.

TIMBRE OR TONE
The timbre, quality or tone of a sound, as you have learnt before, helps us identify its source.
For example, when someone plays the same note just as loudly on a sitar as on a piano, we are
able to distinguish between the two.

The sound produced by a source is

usually not of a single frequency. It has many
frequencies mixed in different proportions.
The main frequency, which determines
the pitch (or the note in the case of music)
is called the fundamental frequency. If we
call this f then the other frequencies present
in the sound are integral multiples of this
frequency (2f, 3f, and so on). The fundamental
frequency is called the first harmonic, while
the multiples of this frequency are called the
second harmonic, third harmonic, and so on.
The multiples of the fundamental frequency
are also called overtones. It is the number and
proportion of overtones that add richness to a
Fig. 7.5 A tuning fork
sound and help us identify its source. This is
a very simple picture of what determines the
timbre of sound. You will learn later, especially if you become a sound engineer, that there are
many other things involved, for example, how long a sound takes to die down.

You may have heard people say, “She spoke in a monotone”, or “He rattled off the names
in a monotone”. What they mean to convey is that the person spoke in a dull tone without
76 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

much variation in pitch. In reality though, the sound of a voice or of a musical instrument
never has a pure (mono) tone or single frequency, even when producing a single musical note
(say, sa or re or ga). A tuning fork, used by musicians to tune their instruments, is capable of
producing sound of a single frequency when struck against something. You may have one in
your school laboratory. Request your teacher to show you how it is used.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Musical instruments can be broadly divided into three groups on the basis of how they
produce sound.

Vibrating Strings
In a large number of musical instruments,
sound is produced by vibrating strings.
The strings are made of animal gut, nylon
or metal and are stretched over a hollow
structure, which is usually made of
wood. Sound is produced by plucking or
bowing the strings. The hollow wooden
structure makes the sound louder and more
melodious.
Instruments in which sound is produced
by vibrating strings are callled string
instruments. Sitar, sarod, santoor, veena
and sarangi are traditional Indian string
instruments. Piano, harp, cello, fiddle,
violin and guitar are traditionally western
instruments, though many of them are very
popular in India as well. The larynx, which Fig. 7.6 String instruments
helps us make sounds, also works like a
string instrument.

Vibrating Air Columns

In the second group of musical instruments,
sound is produced by the vibrations of a
column of air trapped in a ‘pipe’. These are
called wind instruments. When the pipe is
made of wood, as in the flute, shahnai and
clarinet, the instrument is called a woodwind
instrument. When the pipe is metallic,
as in the bugle, trumpet, trombone and
saxophone, the instrument may be called a
horn or brass. A band playing metallic wind
instruments is often called a brass band. Fig. 7.7 Wind instruments
 Sound 77

The whistles used by policemen and sports referees also produce sound with the help of a vibrating
column of air. With a little practice, you can use the cap of a pen or a small bottle (like the vials used
by homoeopaths) as a whistle. Hold the cap vertically, with the open end just touching your lips, and
blow. You could also experiment with drinking straws. Cut the straws to different lengths and blow
into them. You will notice that shorter straws make sharper (shriller) sounds.

Vibrating Membranes
In instruments like drums, tabla, bongos
and mridangam, sound is produced by
vibrating membranes (skins). The skin
or leather is stretched across a hollow,
barrel-shaped or bowl-shaped body
made of wood, metal or clay. The skin is
struck by the hand or a stick.
Instruments which produce a sound
when they are struck or shaken are
called percussion instruments. These
include not only drums, tablas, etc., but
also cymbals, rattles, tambourines and
xylophones. Fig. 7.8 Percussion instruments

• The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its mean position is known as its
amplitude. The unit of amplitude is the metre.
• The loudness of a sound is also called its intensity. It depends upon the amplitude. Its unit
is decibel (dB).
• The frequency of a sound is the number of vibrations made by its source in one second. Its
unit is the hertz (Hz).
• The sharpness or dullness of a sound is called its pitch. It depends upon the frequency.
• The main frequency of a sound, which determines the pitch of the sound, is called the
fundamental frequency. Multiples of the fundamental frequency present in a sound are
called overtones.
• The timbre, tone or quality of a sound depends on the number and proportion of the
overtones present in it.
• Generally speaking, a sound made by a human voice or a musical instrument does not have
a single frequency or a pure (mono) tone. A tuning fork, used by musicians to tune their
instruments, produces a pure tone when struck against something.
• Musical instruments can be divided into three broad groups on the basis of the way sound is
produced by them. These are instruments in which sound is produced by vibrating strings,
vibrating air columns or vibrating membranes.
78 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

Short-Answer Questions (c) fundamental frequency

1. What is the amplitude of a sound-producing (d) harmonic
body? 3. The unit of intensity of sound is
2. What determines the loudness of a sound? (a) Hz (b) decibel
3. Define the frequency of a sound. (c) kHz (d) metre
4. What is pitch? How is it related to frequency? 4. The fundamental frequency is also called the
5. Name three string instruments. (a) first overtone
6. Name three wind instruments. (b) pure tone
7. What is the difference between woodwind (c) fundamental harmonic
instruments and horn? (d) first harmonic
8. What are percussion instruments? 5. One hertz is equal to
(a) one vibration per second
Long-Answer Questions
(b) 10 vibrations per second
1. Explain how the power of a sound-producing (c) 20 vibrations per second
source, the amplitude of the vibrations, the
loudness of the sound and the energy of the (d) 100 vibrations per second
sound waves in air are related. You can use Fill in the blanks.
the example of a vibrating membrane or
1. The unit of frequency is the …… .
string to explain.
2. What do you understand by the terms 2. Children have …… vocal cords than men.
‘ultrasound’ and ‘infrasound’? Give examples 3. Bats use …… to locate their prey.
of infrasound in nature. Mention two uses of 4. The pitch of the sound produced by a drum
ultrasound. is related to its …… .
3. How do musicians alter the pitch of the sound 5. A low-energy wave has a …… amplitude
produced by string and wind instruments? than a high-energy wave.
4. What is meant by the ‘timbre of sound’?
What is a pure tone? Name an instrument Write true or false.
that produces a pure tone when struck against 1. Soft sounds have a lower pitch than loud
something. sounds.
2. Exposure to very loud sounds can damage
Objective Questions
the ears.
Choose the correct option.
3. A note produced by a musical instrument
1. The unit of amplitude is does not have a single frequency.
(a) the metre (b) Hz 4. Dogs and cats can hear frequencies that are
(c) dB (d) bel inaudible to us.
2. The frequency on which the pitch of a sound 5. A musician tunes his or her instrument by
depends is called altering the pitch.
(a) overtone 6. The average (human) range of hearing is
(b) pure tone 20 Hz to 2000 Hz.


 Electricity 79

In Class 7, you learnt that charge is a fundamental property of matter and that it is of two
types—positive and negative. Normally, matter contains an equal amount of the two types
of charge and we say that it is electrically neutral. But under certain conditions, there is an
imbalance of charges, and a body gets electrically charged. The kind of electricity that is caused
by the imbalance or build-up of charge on a body is called static electricity. We will discuss it
in the second part of this chapter.

To begin with, we will discuss current electricity, especially topics related to the electric
supply in our homes. Current electricity refers to the effects produced by an electric current, or
the flow of charge. You may remember that an electric current flows between two points only
when there is a difference in potential between the points. The unit of potential and potential
difference, as you have learnt, is the volt (V), while the unit of current is the ampere (A).

ELECTRIC SUPPLY
The electricity that we use at home, commonly called the mains supply, is generated at power
stations and carried by overhead power lines, supported on electric poles. In some cities, it is
carried by underground cables.

The electric power lines that

enter our houses have three wires,
as shown in Figure 8.1. The live
(or phase) wire, marked L, is
maintained at 220 V and carries
current from the power station, Fig. 8.1 The electric supply lines to a house

while the neutral wire, marked N,

is maintained at a potential close to zero volt and provides the return path for the current. The
earth wire, marked E, is maintained at zero potential by connecting it to a large copper plate
deep in the ground near the house. (The earth is considered to be at zero potential.) Wires are
distinguished by the colour of their insulation to prevent wrong connections. By convention,
the insulation of the live wire is red, that of the neutral wire is black, while that of the earth
wire is green. If you look at a three-pin plug (say, of a refrigerator or geyser), you will find that
79
80 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

the red, black and green wires are connected to the pins marked L, N and E respectively.

You may have noticed that appliances that require low power, such as reading lamps
and music systems, have two-pin plugs. Such appliances have only two terminals, which
are connected to the live wire and the neutral wire. Appliances that draw heavy current (or
require high power), such as heaters, geysers and air conditioners, on the other hand have a
third terminal, called the earth terminal, which is connected to the earth wire of the electric
supply. This is a safety device to ensure that if the body of the appliance happens to come in
contact with the live wire, we do not get a huge electric shock when we touch it accidentally
(Figure 8.2). Earthing the body of an electrical appliance ensures that it is always at zero
potential (the potential of the earth), so current cannot flow from it through our body.

Fig. 8.2 The earth wire prevents electric shock.

ELECTRIC METER
After the main switch, the electric
supply lines pass through the electric
meter (Figure 8.3). The meter records
the electrical energy consumed in the
house continuously. The consumption
of electrical energy, as you have learnt in
Chapter 4, is measured in kilowatt hours
or units (1 unit = 1 kWh = 3.6 # 10 6 J) .

Meter readings are taken at fixed

intervals of time (usually one month). Fig. 8.3 Electric meters
The difference between two successive
readings gives the number of units consumed during the intervening period. This figure
multiplied by the cost of one unit gives the amount that has to be paid.
Suppose the reading at the end of a month (say, June) = x kWh,
and the reading at the end of the next month (July) = y kWh.
Then the energy consumed in the month of July = (y – x) units.
 Electricity 81

If the cost of one unit of energy = ` z,

the cost of energy consumed = ` (y – x) × z.

SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity is a great convenience in our lives. However, it may cause mishaps if we do not
take certain precautions. Safety devices are used in electrical circuits to prevent accidents due
to wrong connections, faulty design, etc. These devices are designed to break the circuit when
the current exceeds a particular value. Fuses, miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) and circuit
breakers are common safety devices.

Fuse
When an electric current flows through
a conductor, heat is produced. That is
how heaters, geysers, toasters, ovens
and other heating devices work. You
will learn later that this process is called
the Joule effect or Joule heating after
the scientist who studied it. A fuse
(Figure 8.4) makes use of Joule heating.
It has a metallic wire (called fuse wire) of
low melting point and high resistance.
The resistance is high because the
amount of heat produced is proportional
to the resistance and the melting point is Fig. 8.4 Fuse
low so that the wire melts easily. Thus, when the current exceeds the prescribed limit, the fuse
wire melts and breaks the circuit. This saves the appliances connected to the circuit.

Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch that essentially serves the same
function as a fuse. However, unlike a fuse, which melts when the current exceeds a particular
value and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset to function again. Also, while
a fuse makes use of the heating effect of a current, a circuit breaker makes use of the magnetic
effect of a current.

Fig. 8.5 Circuit breaker

82 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

Figure 8.5 shows the circuit diagram of a circuit breaker. The main part of the circuit breaker
is the solenoid. When the current in the circuit exceeds the prescribed limit, the core of the
solenoid gets pulled into the solenoid and hits the switch, which opens and breaks the circuit.
The switch can be turned on manually after the fault in the circuit has been repaired.

Miniature Circuit Breaker

The miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) used in our houses
are specially made switches that turn off the circuit when the
current exceeds the predefined value. They may make use of
the magnetic effect (like a circuit breaker) or heating effect (with
a bimetallic strip) of a current. They are available for different
current values (amperes) and hence, can be used in different
sections of the circuit. For example, there may be one for the
circuit of a bedroom and another for the kitchen. The main
advantage of an MCB is that it can be reset, just like a switch, and
hence can be used many times without having to be replaced.
Its disadvantage over a fuse is that it is more expensive.

Safety Rules Fig. 8.6 Miniature circuit breaker

We can prevent most accidents related to the use of electricity by taking the following
precautions.
1. All electrical wires must be properly secured and insulated. Loose or exposed wires
are the most common causes of electrical mishaps.
2. Fuses must always be in place. They should never be replaced by copper wires.
3. Electrical outlets, such as plug points, should never be overloaded. It is common
practice to use adapters to draw power for several devices from a single socket. This
can lead to overheating.
4. Household gadgets which draw large amounts of power, such as heaters, should be
connected to proper power outlets (sockets). Such outlets are somewhat larger, and
marked 15 A (ampere), while low-power outlets are marked 5 A.
5. All wiring and gadgets must be properly earthed.
6. Wires without insulation must never be used in any electrical circuit, except
for earthing.
7. Children should not handle electrical devices or try to repair electrical sockets,
switchboards, and so on.

STATIC ELECTRICITY
Run a comb through your hair (your hair must be dry). Then hold it close to bits of paper. The bits
of paper will get attracted to the comb because when you rub the comb against your hair, it gets
charged. Next, rub a plastic pen or ruler against wool or paper and hold it near a stream of water.
The pen will attract the water and the stream will bend towards the pen because the pen gets
charged when you rub it against wool or paper.
 Electricity 83

Fig. 8.7 A comb rubbed against dry hair and a plastic pen rubbed against wool or paper get charged. They exert
electrostatic force on bits of paper and a stream of water.

Now, let us see how bodies get charged and how a charged body attracts other bodies.

Atoms, Charges and Electricity

You have learnt that the atom is the smallest particle of matter.
However, the atom is not a single particle. At its centre is the
nucleus, which is made up of two types of particles packed
close together. These are positively charged particles called
protons and neutral (uncharged) particles called neutrons.
Negatively charged particles, called electrons, move around
the nucleus somewhat the way planets move around the sun.

Protons and neutrons have about the same mass and are
much heavier than electrons. The charge on a proton is equal
Fig. 8.8 Structure of an atom
and opposite to the charge on an electron. Normally, an atom
contains the same number of (positively charged) protons
and (negatively charged) electrons. Hence, an atom is usually electrically neutral or uncharged.

Free electrons
The protons and neutrons of an atom are bound very tightly and cannot normally break away.
Some of the electrons moving around an atom, however, can break loose. These are called
free electrons, and can move about freely inside a material. It is these charged particles, called
charge carriers, that are responsible for all electrical processes. A body may gain or lose free
electrons and become charged. As long as such charges in a body are at rest, we study their
effects under static electricity.

Conductors have a large number of free electrons or charge carriers, while insulators have
very few of them. This explains the difference between the electrical properties of conductors
and insulators. Normally, the free electrons inside a conductor move about randomly, or not in
84 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

any particular direction. However, when a conductor is connected to a source of electricity, or

a potential difference is created between the two ends of a conductor, the free electrons flow in
a particular direction. This is what gives rise to an electric current. As electrons carry negative
charge, and an electric current is defined as the transfer of positive charge, the direction of
conventional current is opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons.

Fig. 8.9 (a) The free electrons in a conductor are normally in random motion. (b) When a potential difference is
created across the conductor, they flow in a regular direction.

Charge on a body
All objects around us normally have equal amounts of positive and negative charges. Thus,
they are uncharged, or electrically neutral. (This should be obvious since they are made up
of atoms, and atoms are electrically neutral.) However, sometimes a body may either lose or
gain some charge. Then it becomes charged, or is no longer electrically neutral. Remember that
when we speak of the charge on a body we mean the imbalance of charges, and not the actual
amount of charges present in it.
1. If a body gains Q amount of positive charge, the charge on it is + Q.
2. If a body gains Q amount of negative charge, the charge on it is − Q.
3. If a body loses Q amount of positive charge, the charge on it is − Q.
4. If a body loses Q amount of negative charge, the charge on it is + Q.

Atoms can also become charged. When an atom loses electrons, its net charge becomes
positive, and it is called a positive ion. When an atom gains electrons, its net charge becomes
negative, and it is called a negative ion.

Unit of charge
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb, with the symbol C. One coulomb is a very large amount of
charge. Thus, the unit micro coulomb, with the symbol μC, is widely used in static electricity.
One micro coulomb is one millionth of a coulomb, or 10 -6 C.

Charging a Body
A body can be charged by three methods—by friction, by conduction and by induction. We
will discuss each of these methods in some detail.
 Electricity 85

Charging by friction
When two bodies rub against each other, some charge usually Table 8.1 Triboelectric series
moves from one to the other. Both the bodies then acquire equal Glass
and opposite charge. For example, suppose a body A rubs
Human hair
against a body B and Q amount of negative charge moves from
Nylon
A to B. Then B will have − Q charge and A will have + Q charge.
Wool
This process of transfer of charge occurs all the time,
Silk
whenever bodies rub against each other, for example, when
shoes rub against the floor or a pencil rubs against paper. Aluminium
However, in most cases, the amounts of charge which appear on Paper
the bodies are so small that we do not notice their effects. Only Cotton
some materials exchange large amounts of charge when they are
Amber (a resin)
rubbed against each other. Some examples of such materials are
Hard rubber
given in Table 8.1. The materials in the table are arranged in
such a way that a material that is higher up in the series becomes Polyester
positively charged when it is rubbed against a material that is Styrofoam
lower down the series. Such a list or series of materials is called Polythene
a triboelectric series.
Let us try to charge different sets of materials by friction and observe their behaviour. Remember
that simple experiments on static electricity work best in winter. This is because the charges which
build up on bodies usually leak away through the moisture in the air, and the air is rather dry in
winter.
Rub a piece of Styrofoam with a strip of polythene. (Alternatively, rub a plastic ruler or pen with
paper, wool or nylon.) Bring the Styrofoam and polythene close to bits of paper. They will both
attract the pieces of paper, showing that both have been charged by friction.

Fig. 8.10 The Styrofoam and polythene attract bits of paper. They also attract each other.

Force between charges A look at Table 8.1 will tell you that the Styrofoam is positively charged,
while the polythene is negatively charged. If you bring them close to each other, you will find
that they attract each other. This is always true, and we say that unlike charges attract each
86 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

other. You can see examples of this all around you, especially in winter. For example, when
you brush past a curtain made of synthetic material, it sticks to you. Nylon sweaters and socks
cling to you when you try to take them off. Pulses packed in plastic bags stick to the bags and
strands of hair get drawn to your comb while you comb your hair.
This activity will help you observe the
behaviour of similar or like charges. Blow up
two balloons and attach strings to them. Rub
the balloons with wool. According to Table 8.1,
both the balloons should get negatively
charged. Hold the strings together. You will
notice that the balloons move apart, showing
that like charges repel each other.

We can now come to the following

conclusions.

1. Two positive charges repel each other.

2. Two negative charges repel each other.
Fig. 8.11 The balloons carry similar charges, so
3. A positive charge and a negative charge they repel each other.
attract each other.
The magnitude (strength) of the force between charges depends on the magnitude (amount)
of the charges. The greater the charges, the greater is the force between them. The force exerted
by charges also depends on the distance between them. The greater the distance between the
charges, the smaller is the force between them.

Fig. 8.12 Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

Charging by conduction
When an uncharged body comes in contact with a charged body, charge flows from the charged
body to the uncharged one. Suppose a charged body X carrying Q charge comes in contact
with an identical uncharged body Y. Charge will flow from X to Y until they both have Q/2
charge. This process of charging an uncharged body by bringing it in contact with a charged
body is called charging by conduction.

Suspend a small piece of paper by a string. Charge a drinking straw by rubbing it with another piece
of paper and bring it close to the suspended piece of paper. This paper will get attracted to the straw
and finally stick to it. Move the straw away and bring it near the paper again. This time the paper,
which has been charged by conduction, will get repelled.
 Electricity 87

Fig. 8.13 When the charged straw touches the piece of paper, the latter gets charged by conduction. It then gets repelled
by the straw.

Charging by induction
In the activity in which you charged a piece of Styrofoam and a strip of polythene by friction,
both the Styrofoam and the polythene attracted uncharged pieces of paper. Let us find out how
a charged body attracts an uncharged body.

Suppose you bring a positively charged rod close to an uncharged metallic sphere. The
negative charge carriers on the sphere will get attracted to the positive charge on the rod
and move to the side of the sphere that is close to the rod. There will, thus, be a temporary
rearrangement of charges on the sphere. The side of it close to the rod will have more negative
charge and the side away from the rod will have more positive charge. We can also say that
induced negative and positive charges will appear on the sphere. Now, it should be clear to
you why an uncharged body gets attracted to a charged body.

Fig. 8.14 An example of charging by induction

The induced charges on the sphere will disappear as soon as you move the rod away.
However, if you earth the sphere, or connect it to the earth, without moving the rod away from
it, negative charges will flow from the earth to neutralise the positive charges. Thus, the sphere
will be left with a net negative charge. The negative charges will remain on the sphere and not
flow to the earth because they are attracted or ‘bound’ by the positive charges on the rod. If
you move the rod away from the sphere after earthing the sphere, the negative charge on the
88 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

sphere will remain on it. If the rod is negatively charged, the negative charges on the sphere
will get repelled and flow to the earth where the sphere is earthed. This way of charging a body
is called charging by induction.

Comparing Charges
An electroscope is an instrument used to detect and compare charges. It can be used to find
1. whether a body is charged,
2. whether the charge on a body is small or large, and
3. the nature (positive or negative) of the charge on a body.

Gold-leaf electroscope
This is one of the earliest instruments to be
devised to detect and compare charges. It consists
of a brass rod with a brass disc at the top and
two plates at the bottom. The rod is fixed inside
a closed glass jar, as shown in Figure 8.15. One
of the plates is fixed, while the other, which is a
very thin gold plate, is hinged at its upper end
and can move. The electroscope gets its name
from the thin gold plate, which is called a gold
leaf. Although the movable plate can be made of
any conductor, gold is preferred because it can be Fig. 8.15 Gold-leaf electroscope
beaten into a very thin leaf. A thin leaf is light and
moves easily, which improves the sensitivity of the instrument. The glass jar protects the plates
from air currents. Earthed conducting sheets are placed around its lower half so that induced
charges are earthed and improve the working of the electroscope.
When the electroscope is uncharged, the gold leaf hangs vertically due to gravity, or remains
parallel to the fixed plate. However, when a charged body is brought in contact with the brass
disc, the gold leaf moves apart, or diverges. This is because both the fixed plate and the gold
leaf get similar charges and hence, repel each other. The extent to which the gold leaf diverges
depends on the magnitude of the charge.

Fig. 8.16 The divergence increases if the test charge is similar in nature to the charge on the electroscope.
The divergence decreases if the test charge is opposite in nature to the charge on the electroscope.
 Electricity 89

Noting the extent to which the gold leaf diverges gives one an idea about the magnitude
of the charge being tested but not about its nature. To determine the nature of the charge,
the electroscope has to be charged with a known charge initially. Suppose the electroscope is
given a positive charge. Then the divergence of the gold leaf will increase if a positive charge
is brought in contact with the metal disc. On the other hand, the divergence will decrease if a
negatively charged body is brought in contact with the metal disc.

Charging an electroscope An electroscope can be charged by conduction or induction. To charge

an electroscope by conduction, a brass disc with an insulating handle, called a proof plane, is
used. The proof plane is first made to touch a charged body and then brought in contact with
the metal disc of the electroscope. The electroscope then gets charge of the same nature as the
charged body.

Fig. 8.17 Charging an electroscope by (a) conduction and (b) induction

To charge an electroscope by induction, the charged proof plane is brought near the disc of
the electroscope. Bound charges (of the opposite sign) then appear on the disc and free charges
(of the same sign) appear on the plates. The disc is then earthed by touching it, so that the free
charges flow to the earth. The proof plane is moved away from the electroscope, leaving it with
a charge opposite in nature to that on the proof plane.

Lightning
During the rainy season, you must have seen flashes of lightning followed by the loud sound
of thunder. Lightning is caused by the accumulation and separation of charges in clouds.

Thunderclouds normally have huge amounts of positive and negative charges. Sometimes,
these charges separate, with the positive charges moving to the upper part of a cloud and
the negative charges moving to its lower part. The negative charges, which are close to the
earth, induce positive charges on the earth’s surface. As charges build up, a huge potential
difference of millions of volts is created between the cloud and the earth. Though air is normally
nonconducting, the presence of moisture in it, and the fact that the potential difference is
massive, makes it conducting. This causes an enormous electric current to pass from the cloud
to the earth, which creates brilliant streaks of light.
90 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

A potential difference between clouds

can cause an electric current to pass from
one cloud to another. However, when
we speak of a lightning strike, we mean
a sudden passage of a large amount of
charge between a cloud and the earth. The
sound of thunder accompanying flashes
of lightning is caused by the sudden
expansion of air due to the heat released
by the passage of electricity.

Lightning conductor
The enormous amount of energy released
during a lightning strike can damage
buildings, burn down trees and kill
people. Some buildings are provided with
lightning conductors to protect them from
Fig. 8.18 Lightning strikes kill people, damage property and
damage from lightning strikes. A lightning cause forest fires.
conductor consists of a set of metal spikes
fitted at the top of a building and
connected by a metal strip to a
copper plate buried in the earth.
When negative charges build
up in a cloud, positive charges
from the earth travel through
the lightning conductor and the
air to meet the charges in the
cloud and neutralise them. And if
lightning does strike, despite the
action of the lightning conductor,
the current passes through the
conductor into the earth without
damaging the building. Fig. 8.19 Lightning conductor

Safety
Lightning strikes can kill people or leave them with lifelong disabilities. Here are some
precautions you can take to protect yourself during a thunderstorm.
1. It is best to stay indoors during a thunderstorm.
2. If you happen to be outdoors, take shelter inside a vehicle (with a hard top) and roll up
the windows. If that is not possible, crouch down on the balls of your feet and make
as little contact as possible with the ground. Avoid high ground, water bodies, trees,
fences, power and telephone lines, bicycles, motorcycles, metallic farm equipment, or
anything that can act as a path for a lightning strike.
 Electricity 91

3. If you are indoors, stay away from windows. Do not use electrical appliances,
computers and telephones with cords because a lightning strike on telephone or power
lines outside can induce shocks indoors. If possible, turn off all electrical appliances.

• Static electricity is caused by the build-up of charge in a body.

• An electric current is the flow of charge. The unit of electric current is the ampere (A).
• Charge flows when there is a difference in potential. The unit of potential and potential
difference is the volt (V).
• Heat is produced when an electric current passes through a conductor. This is known as the
Joule effect and is made use of in electrical heating devices.
• Electric power lines have three wires—live (or phase) wire, marked L, neutral wire, marked
N, and earth wire, marked E. By convention, the insulation of the live wire is red, that of the
neutral wire is black, while that of the earth wire is green.
• The live wire is maintained at 220 V and carries current from the power station, the neutral
wire is maintained at a potential close to zero volt and provides the return path for the
current, while the earth wire is maintained at zero potential.
• The domestic consumption of electricity is measured in Board of Trade (BoT) units or units.
One unit is equal to 1 kWh.
• Fuses, circuit breakers and miniature circuit breakers are safety devices used to prevent
accidents due to faulty electrical connections. They break the circuit when the current exceeds
a particular value. Fuses work on the heating effect of a current, while circuit breakers work
on the magnetic effect of a current.
• The nucleus at the centre of an atom contains positively charged protons and electrically
neutral neutrons. Negatively charged electrons move around it. The charge on a proton is
equal and opposite to that on an electron.
• Electric current is caused by the motion of free electrons.
• The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C).
• An uncharged body can become charged by either acquiring or losing some charge. A body
can be charged by friction, conduction or induction.
• When two bodies rub against each other, they acquire equal and opposite charges. A material
that is higher in the triboelectric series becomes positively charged when rubbed against one
that is lower in the series.
• When a charged body comes in contact with an uncharged body, charge flows from the
former to the latter. This is charging by conduction.
• A proof plane is a brass disc with an insulating handle, used for transferring charge. Earthing
a body means connecting it to the earth so that charges can flow to the ground.
• Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. The force between charges depends on the
magnitude of the charges and the distance between them.
92 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

• When a charged body comes close to an uncharged body, induced charges appear on the
latter. If the uncharged body is earthed in the presence of the charged body, it gets a charge
that is opposite in nature to that on the charged body. This is called charging by induction.
• An electroscope can detect and compare charges. The gold-leaf electroscope has a brass rod
with a disc at the top and two conducting plates at its lower end. One of the plates is a gold
leaf, hinged at its upper end. When the disc has some charge, the fixed plate and the gold
leaf repel each other and the gold leaf diverges from the fixed plate.
• Lightning is caused by the accumulation and separation of charges in the clouds. Damages
to a building due to lightning can be reduced to a large extent by a lightning conductor. It
has a set of metal spikes connected by a thick metal strip to a large copper plate buried in
the earth.

Short-Answer Questions 7. Explain how a gold-leaf electroscope can be

1. Name some materials that can be charged by charged by conduction and induction.
friction. 8. Explain how thunder and lightning occur in
2. What is a triboelectric series? nature.
3. What is the Joule effect? 9. What is a lightning conductor? Explain how
it reduces the risk of a lightning strike and
4. What is the SI unit of charge? the possible damage from lightning.
5. Why should earthed conducting sheets be 10. Mention three precautions that we should
placed around the lower half of a gold-leaf take to protect ourselves from a lightning
electroscope? strike.
6. Why do the leaves of a gold-leaf electroscope
diverge when a charged body is brought in Objective Questions
contact with its disc? Choose the correct option.
7. Name the three wires of an electric power 1. The purpose of a fuse used in household
line. wiring is
(a) to prevent electric shock
Long-Answer Questions
(b) to distribute electricity in the different
1. How is the consumption of electrical energy parts of the household
measured? (c) to disconnect an electrical appliance
2. Explain the working of a circuit breaker with when it is not in use
a neat diagram. (d) to prevent electrical fires
3. How does a fuse wire prevent accidents in 2. In domestic wiring, the neutral wire has
case of faulty circuit connections? which of the following colours?
4. Mention five precautions that must be taken (a) Black (b) White
for the safe use of electricity. (c) Green (d) Red
5. Name the different ways in which a body can 3. Electric meters measure the consumption of
be charged. Describe each of them briefly. energy in
6. Describe the construction of a gold-leaf (a) watts (b) kilowatts
electroscope. (c) kilowatt hours (d) joules
 Electricity 93

4. A body can be charged 2. When two bodies are rubbed together, they
(a) only by conduction acquire …… and opposite charges.
(b) only by induction 3. The live wire is maintained at …… V.
(c) only by friction 4. Appliances that require low power have
(d) by all of the above processes only two terminals connected to the ……
5. On which of the following principles does wire and the …… wire.
the gold-leaf electroscope work? 5. The earth terminal is provided in electrical
(a) Similar charges repel each other. appliances that draw …… current (power).
(b) Dissimilar charges attract each other. 6. Household electrical consumption is
(c) Gold is a very good conductor of measured in …… .
electricity. 7. 1 unit = …… J.
(d) Glass is a very poor conductor of 8. Gold is used in an electroscope because it
electricity. can be beaten into very …… sheets.
6. A lightning conductor at the top of a high 9. A lightning conductor can gradually ……
building is the charge in clouds above it.
(a) a thick copper wire Write true or false.
(b) a number of conductors with sharp 1. Electric power lines have two wires.
points
2. An MCB can be used instead of a fuse in an
(c) a wide metal disc
electric circuit.
(d) a copper plate
3. The earth wire prevents electrocution.
7. Which of the following does not occur due
4. Electrical meters measure power in kilowatts.
to lightning?
(a) Forest fires (b) Heavy rainfall 5. A gold-leaf electroscope can detect only
negative charges.
(c) Damage to buildings (d) Injury or death
6. A circuit breaker makes use of the magnetic
Fill in the blanks. effect of a current.
1. The earth wire is connected to a …… buried 7. Fuses and circuit breakers are used to prevent
under the ground. accidents due to faulty electrical connections.

Making an Electroscope
Cut a strip of metal foil (for example, a chocolate wrapper). Fold it in half. Make two slits on a circular piece of
94 Essential ICSE Physics for Class 8

cardboard and pass the metal foil through the slits, as shown, so that you have two metal leaves hanging freely.
Place the cardboard over the mouth of a glass jar. Rub a comb or plastic ruler with a nylon sock. Bring the comb
close to the cardboard. The metal leaves should move apart.

Producing a Little Lightning

Charge a Styrofoam plate by rubbing it with wool or paper. Clamp a plastic clothes pin on an aluminium-foil bowl.
Hold the bowl by this handle. Darken the room and bring your finger close to the top of the bowl. You will hear a
crackling sound (thunder), see a small flash (lightning) and feel a mild shock, as charges travel from the bowl to
the ground through your body.