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 ©1996 by e Massachuses Institute of Technology

Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs,

second edition

Harold Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman

with Julie Sussman, foreword by Alan J. Perlis

is work is licensed under a Creative Commons

Aribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License
(  .). Based on a work at mitpress.mit.edu.

e  Press
Cambridge, Massachuses
London, England

McGraw-Hill Book Company

New York, St. Louis, San Francisco,
Montreal, Toronto

Unofficial Texinfo Format 2.andresraba5.6 (February 2, 2016),

based on 2.neilvandyke4 (January 10, 2007).
Contents

Unofficial Texinfo Format ix

Dedication xii

Foreword xiii

Preface to the Second Edition xix

Preface to the First Edition xxi

Anowledgments xxv

1 Building Abstractions with Procedures 1

1.1 e Elements of Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1 Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2 Naming and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.3 Evaluating Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.4 Compound Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.5 e Substitution Model for Procedure Application 18
1.1.6 Conditional Expressions and Predicates . . . . 22
1.1.7 Example: Square Roots by Newton’s Method . . 28

iii
 1.1.8 Procedures as Black-Box Abstractions . . . . . 33
1.2 Procedures and the Processes ey Generate . . . . . . 40
1.2.1 Linear Recursion and Iteration . . . . . . . . . 41
1.2.2 Tree Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.2.3 Orders of Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.2.4 Exponentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.2.5 Greatest Common Divisors . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.2.6 Example: Testing for Primality . . . . . . . . . 65
1.3 Formulating Abstractions
with Higher-Order Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.3.1 Procedures as Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.3.2 Constructing Procedures Using lambda . . . . . 83
1.3.3 Procedures as General Methods . . . . . . . . . 89
1.3.4 Procedures as Returned Values . . . . . . . . . 97

2 Building Abstractions with Data 107

2.1 Introduction to Data Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.1.1 Example: Arithmetic Operations
for Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.1.2 Abstraction Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.1.3 What Is Meant by Data? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.1.4 Extended Exercise: Interval Arithmetic . . . . . 126
2.2 Hierarchical Data and the Closure Property . . . . . . . 132
2.2.1 Representing Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
2.2.2 Hierarchical Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
2.2.3 Sequences as Conventional Interfaces . . . . . 154
2.2.4 Example: A Picture Language . . . . . . . . . . 172
2.3 Symbolic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
2.3.1 otation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

iv
 2.3.2 Example: Symbolic Differentiation . . . . . . . 197
2.3.3 Example: Representing Sets . . . . . . . . . . . 205
2.3.4 Example: Huffman Encoding Trees . . . . . . . 218
2.4 Multiple Representations for Abstract Data . . . . . . . 229
2.4.1 Representations for Complex Numbers . . . . . 232
2.4.2 Tagged data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.4.3 Data-Directed Programming and Additivity . . 242
2.5 Systems with Generic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
2.5.1 Generic Arithmetic Operations . . . . . . . . . 255
2.5.2 Combining Data of Different Types . . . . . . . 262
2.5.3 Example: Symbolic Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . 274

3 Modularity, Objects, and State 294

3.1 Assignment and Local State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
3.1.1 Local State Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
3.1.2 e Benefits of Introducing Assignment . . . . 305
3.1.3 e Costs of Introducing Assignment . . . . . . 311
3.2 e Environment Model of Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . 320
3.2.1 e Rules for Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
3.2.2 Applying Simple Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . 327
3.2.3 Frames as the Repository of Local State . . . . 330
3.2.4 Internal Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
3.3 Modeling with Mutable Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
3.3.1 Mutable List Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
3.3.2 Representing eues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
3.3.3 Representing Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
3.3.4 A Simulator for Digital Circuits . . . . . . . . . 369
3.3.5 Propagation of Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . 386
3.4 Concurrency: Time Is of the Essence . . . . . . . . . . . 401

v
 3.4.1 e Nature of Time in Concurrent Systems . . 403
3.4.2 Mechanisms for Controlling Concurrency . . . 410
3.5 Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
3.5.1 Streams Are Delayed Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
3.5.2 Infinite Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
3.5.3 Exploiting the Stream Paradigm . . . . . . . . . 453
3.5.4 Streams and Delayed Evaluation . . . . . . . . 470
3.5.5 Modularity of Functional Programs
and Modularity of Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

4 Metalinguistic Abstraction 487

4.1 e Metacircular Evaluator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
4.1.1 e Core of the Evaluator . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
4.1.2 Representing Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
4.1.3 Evaluator Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
4.1.4 Running the Evaluator as a Program . . . . . . 518
4.1.5 Data as Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
4.1.6 Internal Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
4.1.7 Separating Syntactic Analysis from Execution . 534
4.2 Variations on a Scheme — Lazy Evaluation . . . . . . . 541
4.2.1 Normal Order and Applicative Order . . . . . . 542
4.2.2 An Interpreter with Lazy Evaluation . . . . . . 544
4.2.3 Streams as Lazy Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
4.3 Variations on a Scheme — Nondeterministic Computing 559
4.3.1 Amb and Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
4.3.2 Examples of Nondeterministic Programs . . . . 567
4.3.3 Implementing the amb Evaluator . . . . . . . . 578
4.4 Logic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
4.4.1 Deductive Information Retrieval . . . . . . . . 599

vi
 4.4.2 How the ery System Works . . . . . . . . . 615
4.4.3 Is Logic Programming Mathematical Logic? . . 627
4.4.4 Implementing the ery System . . . . . . . . 635
4.4.4.1 e Driver Loop and Instantiation . . 636
4.4.4.2 e Evaluator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
4.4.4.3 Finding Assertions
by Paern Matching . . . . . . . . . 642
4.4.4.4 Rules and Unification . . . . . . . . . 645
4.4.4.5 Maintaining the Data Base . . . . . . 651
4.4.4.6 Stream Operations . . . . . . . . . . 654
4.4.4.7 ery Syntax Procedures . . . . . . . 656
4.4.4.8 Frames and Bindings . . . . . . . . . 659

5 Computing with Register Maines 666

5.1 Designing Register Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
5.1.1 A Language for Describing Register Machines . 672
5.1.2 Abstraction in Machine Design . . . . . . . . . 678
5.1.3 Subroutines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
5.1.4 Using a Stack to Implement Recursion . . . . . 686
5.1.5 Instruction Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
5.2 A Register-Machine Simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
5.2.1 e Machine Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
5.2.2 e Assembler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
5.2.3 Generating Execution Procedures
for Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
5.2.4 Monitoring Machine Performance . . . . . . . 718
5.3 Storage Allocation and Garbage Collection . . . . . . . 723
5.3.1 Memory as Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
5.3.2 Maintaining the Illusion of Infinite Memory . . 731

vii
 5.4 e Explicit-Control Evaluator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
5.4.1 e Core of the Explicit-Control Evaluator . . . 743
5.4.2 Sequence Evaluation and Tail Recursion . . . . 751
5.4.3 Conditionals, Assignments, and Definitions . . 756
5.4.4 Running the Evaluator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
5.5 Compilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
5.5.1 Structure of the Compiler . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
5.5.2 Compiling Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
5.5.3 Compiling Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
5.5.4 Combining Instruction Sequences . . . . . . . . 797
5.5.5 An Example of Compiled Code . . . . . . . . . 802
5.5.6 Lexical Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
5.5.7 Interfacing Compiled Code to the Evaluator . . 823

References 834

List of Exercises 844

List of Figures 846

Index 848

Colophon 855

viii
Unofficial Texinfo Format

is is the second edition  book, from Unofficial Texinfo Format.
You are probably reading it in an Info hypertext browser, such as the
Info mode of Emacs. You might alternatively be reading it TEX-formaed
on your screen or printer, though that would be silly. And, if printed,
expensive.
e freely-distributed official -and- format was first con-
verted personally to Unofficial Texinfo Format () version 1 by Lytha
Ayth during a long Emacs lovefest weekend in April, 2001.
e  is easier to search than the  format. It is also much
more accessible to people running on modest computers, such as do-
nated ’386-based PCs. A 386 can, in theory, run Linux, Emacs, and a
Scheme interpreter simultaneously, but most 386s probably can’t also
run both Netscape and the necessary X Window System without prema-
turely introducing budding young underfunded hackers to the concept
of thrashing.  can also fit uncompressed on a 1.44 floppy diskee,
which may come in handy for installing  on PCs that do not have
Internet or  access.
e Texinfo conversion has been a straight transliteration, to the
extent possible. Like the TEX-to- conversion, this was not without
some introduction of breakage. In the case of Unofficial Texinfo Format,

ix
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figures have suffered an amateurish resurrection of the lost art of .
Also, it’s quite possible that some errors of ambiguity were introduced
during the conversion of some of the copious superscripts (‘ˆ’) and sub-
scripts (‘_’). Divining which has been le as an exercise to the reader.
But at least we don’t put our brave astronauts at risk by encoding the
greater-than-or-equal symbol as <u>&gt;</u>.
If you modify sicp.texi to correct errors or improve the  art,
then update the @set utfversion 2.andresraba5.6 line to reflect your
delta. For example, if you started with Lytha’s version 1, and your name
is Bob, then you could name your successive versions 1.bob1, 1.bob2,
. . . 1.bobn. Also update utfversiondate. If you want to distribute your
version on the Web, then embedding the string “sicp.texi” somewhere
in the file or Web page will make it easier for people to find with Web
search engines.
It is believed that the Unofficial Texinfo Format is in keeping with
the spirit of the graciously freely-distributed  version. But you
never know when someone’s armada of lawyers might need something
to do, and get their shorts all in a knot over some benign lile thing,
so think twice before you use your full name or distribute Info, ,
PostScript, or  formats that might embed your account or machine
name.
Peath, Lytha Ayth

Addendum: See also the  video lectures by Abelson and Sussman:
at   or  .
Second Addendum: Above is the original introduction to the  from
2001. Ten years later,  has been transformed: mathematical symbols
and formulas are properly typeset, and figures drawn in vector graph-
ics. e original text formulas and  art figures are still there in

x
the Texinfo source, but will display only when compiled to Info output.
At the dawn of e-book readers and tablets, reading a  on screen is
officially not silly anymore. Enjoy!
A.R, May, 2011

xi
Dedication

T    , in respect and admiration, to the spirit that

lives in the computer.

“I think that it’s extraordinarily important that we in com-

puter science keep fun in computing. When it started out,
it was an awful lot of fun. Of course, the paying customers
got shaed every now and then, and aer a while we began
to take their complaints seriously. We began to feel as if we
really were responsible for the successful, error-free perfect
use of these machines. I don’t think we are. I think we’re
responsible for stretching them, seing them off in new di-
rections, and keeping fun in the house. I hope the field of
computer science never loses its sense of fun. Above all, I
hope we don’t become missionaries. Don’t feel as if you’re
Bible salesmen. e world has too many of those already.
What you know about computing other people will learn.
Don’t feel as if the key to successful computing is only in
your hands. What’s in your hands, I think and hope, is in-
telligence: the ability to see the machine as more than when
you were first led up to it, that you can make it more.”
—Alan J. Perlis (April 1, 1922 – February 7, 1990)

xii
Foreword

E , , , psychologists, and parents pro-

gram. Armies, students, and some societies are programmed. An
assault on large problems employs a succession of programs, most of
which spring into existence en route. ese programs are rife with is-
sues that appear to be particular to the problem at hand. To appreciate
programming as an intellectual activity in its own right you must turn to
computer programming; you must read and write computer programs—
many of them. It doesn’t maer much what the programs are about or
what applications they serve. What does maer is how well they per-
form and how smoothly they fit with other programs in the creation
of still greater programs. e programmer must seek both perfection
of part and adequacy of collection. In this book the use of “program” is
focused on the creation, execution, and study of programs wrien in a
dialect of Lisp for execution on a digital computer. Using Lisp we re-
strict or limit not what we may program, but only the notation for our
program descriptions.
Our traffic with the subject maer of this book involves us with
three foci of phenomena: the human mind, collections of computer pro-
grams, and the computer. Every computer program is a model, hatched
in the mind, of a real or mental process. ese processes, arising from

xiii
human experience and thought, are huge in number, intricate in de-
tail, and at any time only partially understood. ey are modeled to our
permanent satisfaction rarely by our computer programs. us even
though our programs are carefully handcraed discrete collections of
symbols, mosaics of interlocking functions, they continually evolve: we
change them as our perception of the model deepens, enlarges, gen-
eralizes until the model ultimately aains a metastable place within
still another model with which we struggle. e source of the exhilara-
tion associated with computer programming is the continual unfolding
within the mind and on the computer of mechanisms expressed as pro-
grams and the explosion of perception they generate. If art interprets
our dreams, the computer executes them in the guise of programs!
For all its power, the computer is a harsh taskmaster. Its programs
must be correct, and what we wish to say must be said accurately in ev-
ery detail. As in every other symbolic activity, we become convinced of
program truth through argument. Lisp itself can be assigned a seman-
tics (another model, by the way), and if a program’s function can be
specified, say, in the predicate calculus, the proof methods of logic can
be used to make an acceptable correctness argument. Unfortunately, as
programs get large and complicated, as they almost always do, the ade-
quacy, consistency, and correctness of the specifications themselves be-
come open to doubt, so that complete formal arguments of correctness
seldom accompany large programs. Since large programs grow from
small ones, it is crucial that we develop an arsenal of standard program
structures of whose correctness we have become sure—we call them
idioms—and learn to combine them into larger structures using orga-
nizational techniques of proven value. ese techniques are treated at
length in this book, and understanding them is essential to participation
in the Promethean enterprise called programming. More than anything

xiv
else, the uncovering and mastery of powerful organizational techniques
accelerates our ability to create large, significant programs. Conversely,
since writing large programs is very taxing, we are stimulated to invent
new methods of reducing the mass of function and detail to be fied
into large programs.
Unlike programs, computers must obey the laws of physics. If they
wish to perform rapidly—a few nanoseconds per state change—they
must transmit electrons only small distances (at most 1 12 feet). e heat
generated by the huge number of devices so concentrated in space has to
be removed. An exquisite engineering art has been developed balancing
between multiplicity of function and density of devices. In any event,
hardware always operates at a level more primitive than that at which
we care to program. e processes that transform our Lisp programs
to “machine” programs are themselves abstract models which we pro-
gram. eir study and creation give a great deal of insight into the or-
ganizational programs associated with programming arbitrary models.
Of course the computer itself can be so modeled. ink of it: the behav-
ior of the smallest physical switching element is modeled by quantum
mechanics described by differential equations whose detailed behavior
is captured by numerical approximations represented in computer pro-
grams executing on computers composed of . . .!
It is not merely a maer of tactical convenience to separately iden-
tify the three foci. Even though, as they say, it’s all in the head, this
logical separation induces an acceleration of symbolic traffic between
these foci whose richness, vitality, and potential is exceeded in human
experience only by the evolution of life itself. At best, relationships be-
tween the foci are metastable. e computers are never large enough or
fast enough. Each breakthrough in hardware technology leads to more
massive programming enterprises, new organizational principles, and

xv
an enrichment of abstract models. Every reader should ask himself pe-
riodically “Toward what end, toward what end?”—but do not ask it too
oen lest you pass up the fun of programming for the constipation of
biersweet philosophy.
Among the programs we write, some (but never enough) perform a
precise mathematical function such as sorting or finding the maximum
of a sequence of numbers, determining primality, or finding the square
root. We call such programs algorithms, and a great deal is known of
their optimal behavior, particularly with respect to the two important
parameters of execution time and data storage requirements. A pro-
grammer should acquire good algorithms and idioms. Even though some
programs resist precise specifications, it is the responsibility of the pro-
grammer to estimate, and always to aempt to improve, their perfor-
mance.
Lisp is a survivor, having been in use for about a quarter of a cen-
tury. Among the active programming languages only Fortran has had
a longer life. Both languages have supported the programming needs
of important areas of application, Fortran for scientific and engineering
computation and Lisp for artificial intelligence. ese two areas con-
tinue to be important, and their programmers are so devoted to these
two languages that Lisp and Fortran may well continue in active use for
at least another quarter-century.
Lisp changes. e Scheme dialect used in this text has evolved from
the original Lisp and differs from the laer in several important ways,
including static scoping for variable binding and permiing functions to
yield functions as values. In its semantic structure Scheme is as closely
akin to Algol 60 as to early Lisps. Algol 60, never to be an active language
again, lives on in the genes of Scheme and Pascal. It would be difficult
to find two languages that are the communicating coin of two more dif-

xvi
ferent cultures than those gathered around these two languages. Pas-
cal is for building pyramids—imposing, breathtaking, static structures
built by armies pushing heavy blocks into place. Lisp is for building
organisms—imposing, breathtaking, dynamic structures built by squads
fiing fluctuating myriads of simpler organisms into place. e organiz-
ing principles used are the same in both cases, except for one extraordi-
narily important difference: e discretionary exportable functionality
entrusted to the individual Lisp programmer is more than an order of
magnitude greater than that to be found within Pascal enterprises. Lisp
programs inflate libraries with functions whose utility transcends the
application that produced them. e list, Lisp’s native data structure, is
largely responsible for such growth of utility. e simple structure and
natural applicability of lists are reflected in functions that are amazingly
nonidiosyncratic. In Pascal the plethora of declarable data structures in-
duces a specialization within functions that inhibits and penalizes ca-
sual cooperation. It is beer to have 100 functions operate on one data
structure than to have 10 functions operate on 10 data structures. As a
result the pyramid must stand unchanged for a millennium; the organ-
ism must evolve or perish.
To illustrate this difference, compare the treatment of material and
exercises within this book with that in any first-course text using Pascal.
Do not labor under the illusion that this is a text digestible at  only,
peculiar to the breed found there. It is precisely what a serious book on
programming Lisp must be, no maer who the student is or where it is
used.
Note that this is a text about programming, unlike most Lisp books,
which are used as a preparation for work in artificial intelligence. Aer
all, the critical programming concerns of soware engineering and ar-
tificial intelligence tend to coalesce as the systems under investigation

xvii
become larger. is explains why there is such growing interest in Lisp
outside of artificial intelligence.
As one would expect from its goals, artificial intelligence research
generates many significant programming problems. In other program-
ming cultures this spate of problems spawns new languages. Indeed, in
any very large programming task a useful organizing principle is to con-
trol and isolate traffic within the task modules via the invention of lan-
guage. ese languages tend to become less primitive as one approaches
the boundaries of the system where we humans interact most oen. As
a result, such systems contain complex language-processing functions
replicated many times. Lisp has such a simple syntax and semantics that
parsing can be treated as an elementary task. us parsing technology
plays almost no role in Lisp programs, and the construction of language
processors is rarely an impediment to the rate of growth and change of
large Lisp systems. Finally, it is this very simplicity of syntax and se-
mantics that is responsible for the burden and freedom borne by all
Lisp programmers. No Lisp program of any size beyond a few lines can
be wrien without being saturated with discretionary functions. Invent
and fit; have fits and reinvent! We toast the Lisp programmer who pens
his thoughts within nests of parentheses.
Alan J. Perlis
New Haven, Connecticut

xviii
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