"RESPIRATORY AND ENTERIC DISEASES IN FARMS WITH

LARGE AND SMALL RUMINANTS - EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY,

DIAGNOSTICS, THERAPY AND PROPHYLAXIS ON A HERD
LEVEL’’
DISCIPLINE: HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT
(Infectious diseases part)
LECTURE №1 (DISTANCE EDUCATION)
27.04.2022 SEMESTER X
Assoc. prof. Chavdar Filipov, DVM, PhD
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Universtity of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria
(The materials are used from many sources with a great respect to the first
moderators: authors of textbooks, articles, presentations and images!!!)
 Dear Students,
The discipline: ‘’Herd health management’’ is directed to the
prevention of the whole herds in different animal species. We have to
look not only in one group of diseases (infectious, parasitic, internal
and etc.), but to take into consideration the influence of the complex
between biosecurity measures and all types of diseases.
Of course, this separation in five disciplines, was made due to
the program and also for your easier learning.
You already passed most of the infectious diseases (only parts
of swine and poultry diseases you need to trace the next weeks) and we
do not want to repeat the same material. We wish to underline the fact,
that you have a perfect knowledge in Epidemiology also!
So you will be able to construct each of diseases for itself, but
in this presentation and in additional materials (we have attached also
some PDF documents), you can understand better the basic aspects of
the Herd health management.
(BOVINE RESPIRATORY DISEASE COMPLEX-
BRDC)
VIRUSES: BRDC BACTERIA:
Bovine respiratory and syncytial virus (BRSV) Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica
Virus parainfluenza 3 (PI3) Pasteurella multocida A,D
Bovine herpesvirus 1 BHV-1 (IBR) Histophillus (Haemophillus) somni
Virus bovine diarrhoe (BVD) Mycoplasma spp.
Adenoviruses, Coronaviruses, Rhinoviruses … Streptococcus spp.
Staphylococcus spp.
 CONTROL, MANAGEMENT, AND PREVENTION OF BOVINE
RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN DAIRYCALVES AND COWS
Despite advances in veterinary medicine, animal husbandry, and animal
welfare, respi- ratory disease among dairy calves and cows continues to be a major
problem for dairy producers. Although much of the effort is concentrated on
controlling bovine respira- tory disease (BRD) in young calves, also known as
enzootic calf pneumonia (ECP), outbreaks of respiratory disease in adult animals
can have negative effects on bovine welfare and production, resulting in
devastating economic outcomes for dairy owners.
The United States Department of Agriculture National Animal Health
Monitoring Service (NAHMS) has examined the incidence of respiratory disease in
calves for more than 20 years (Table 1). Pre-weaned calf mortality has essentially
been unchanged, ranging from a low of 7.8% in 2006 to 10.8% in 1996.
The percentage of deaths attributed to respiratory disease in pre-weaned
calves has also remained essentially unchanged during the same time period. A
similar trend for mortality rate (range of 1.8%–2.2%) has been seen in weaned
calves.
There has been a substantial increase in the percentage of deaths credited
to respiratory disease in weaned calves (34.8% to 46.5%). In a separate study,
Sivula and colleagues reported a 7.6% morbidity rate and a 2.3% mortality rate
from respiratory disease among calves between birth and 16 weeks of age.
Table 1
Changes in respiratory disease incidence 1991 to 2007
1991 1996 2002 2007
Pre-weaned calf mortality 8.4 10.8 10.5 7.8
Percentage of deaths caused by 21.3 24.5 21.3 22.5
respiratory disease pre-weaned
calves
Weaned calf mortality 2.2 2.4 2.8 1.8
Percentage of deaths caused by 34.8 44.8 50% 46.5
respiratory disease–weaned calves

Data from USDA. Dairy 2007, Part V: Changes in dairy cattle health and management
practices in the United States, 1996–2007. Fort Collins (CO): USDA: APHIS:VS, CEAH;
2009 #519.0709.
 The attack rate of respiratory disease development in Minnesota dairy
calves was 0.1 cases per 100 calf days during the same age range.
The costs associated with respiratory disease include prevention, treatment, and
lost productivity. Several researchers have attempted to use available NAHMS data from
their state to calculate a local cost of respiratory disease and respiratory disease
prevention for specific management groups. For unweaned calves, esti- mates range
from $9.84 to $16.35 per calf whereas weaned calf estimates range from $2.05 to $2.22
per calf. Respiratory disease in the early stages of the calf’s life can have significant
effects on subsequent productivity and survivability, thus adding to these costs.
A diagnosis of pneumonia during the first 6 months of life resulted in
slower growth rates later in life and decreased productivity. Heifers followed through
first calving that were diagnosed with respiratory disease as young calves were 2 or
more times more likely to die before calving and calve at an older age when compared
with heifers that did not develop respiratory disease before 90 days of age.8
Diagnosis of pneumonia in adult dairy cattle is not as common as diseases such
as mastitis, lameness, metabolic disease, and reproductive disorders. Annually, 3.3% of
dairy cows develop owner-reported pneumonia and those pneumonia cases account for
11.3% of cow deaths. Losses and prevention costs were estimated at $4.31 per cow in
Michigan herds to $9.08 per cow in Ohio herds. The Ohio study reported an estimated
annual prevalence per 100 cow-years for pneumonia of 19% among adult dairy cattle.
 The lack of progress in controlling respiratory disease demonstrates
that there continues to be significant room for improvement in controlling
this multifactorial syndrome, and that dairy producers need assistance in
applying evolving husbandry practices to improve dairy cattle health.
This article focuses on biosecurity programs to prevent respiratory
disease in dairy calves and cows. Effective disease identification and
treatment strategies are addressed.

PREVENTION OF RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN DAIRY CALVES

Prevention practices associated with respiratory disease control in
calves include the development and maintenance of a robust immune
system through delivery of adequate good-quality colostrum, sound
nutrition, proper vaccination, biosecurity, and provision of adequate
ventilation.
 Minimizing Failure of Passive Transfer
The newborn calf is born with a na¨ıve but functional immune
system. Immune protec- tion is dependent on consumption of preformed
antibody. Failure of passive transfer (FPT) is a major factor in the
development and severity of respiratory disease in calves. Despite the
significant effort placed on colostrum delivery to newborn calves, NAHMS
Dairy 2007 determined that nearly 1 in 5 (19.2%) newborn heifer calves had
FPT. As part of complete program for respiratory disease control, prac-
titioners must continually focus on colostrum management and monitor the
incidence of FPT.
Associated with FPT are the environments that the calves are placed
into, as these can have significant impacts on pneumonia as well. Assuring
maternity pens are kept clean and dry and that calves are moved from
maternity pens immediately after birth are important aspects of newborn care.
Delivery of calves into a heavily contaminated maternity pen and
leaving newborn calves in the maternity pen increases the risk that calves
are orally exposed to bacterial pathogens.Incidental consumption of
environ- mental bacteria by the newborn calf is a risk factor for the
development of enteric disease, and limits colostrum immunoglobulin
absorption across the gut wall.
 Colostrum Collection and Storage
Colostrum must be collected, processed, and stored in a manner that
limits bacterial contamination and minimizes bacterial incubation. Bacteria
counts in colostrum can be assessed by performing a total plate count
(TPC) and coliform counts.
The goal is to have the TPC less than 1 million colony-forming units
(CFU)/mL and the coliform count less than 10,000 CFU/mL
Severalmethods have been used to reduce bacteria counts in
colostrum while still maintaining adequate passive transfer, including
pasteurization and acidification of colostrum using formic acid. It should be
noted that use of pasteurization and formic acid to control Mycobacterium
avium subsp paratuberculosis (MAP) remains controversial and may not be
appropriate for herds attempting to control Johnes disease. Until further
research is completed to more thoroughly characterize the importance of
low numbers of MAP in treated colostrum samples, producers who are
actively attempting to control or eradicate Johnes disease may wish to
consider the use a colostrum replacement. For a more thorough discussion
of colostrum replacers, readers are referred to an earlier issue of Veterinary
Clinics of North America.
 Colostrum Delivery
An adequate volume of high-quality colostrum must be fed in a timely
manner. Colos- trum should contain at least 50 g IgG/L. For typical Holstein calves
(w85–90 lbs [38.5–40 kg]), 4 quarts (3.78 L) of colostrum should be fed as soon as
possible after birth, preferably within 1 to 2 hours of birth. Smaller calves such as
Jerseys should be limited to 3 quarts (2.83 L) delivered in the same time frame.
Colostrum delivered by a nurse bottle or esophageal feeder will result in adequate
passive transfer and provides assurance that the calf has consumed an adequate volume.
Navel Dipping
Navel dipping can play an important role in controlling diseases in newborn
calves.
Proper disinfection of navels has been shown to reduce calf mortality by half and
reduce the percentage of calves treated for respiratory disease from nearly 19% in the
nondisinfected group to 5% in the disinfected group (Donald Sockett, DVM,
presentation notes, Land O Lakes, Webster City, IA, January 2010).
To properly perform naval disinfection, spraying of navels should be avoided, as
this procedure does not provide adequate disinfection of the interior portion of the
umbilical cord (Donald Sockett, DVM, presentation notes, Land O Lakes, Webster City,
IA, January 2010). Dipping of the navel into a clean vessel containing fresh disinfectant
provides better coverage of both the internal and external surface of the umbilicus.
 Nutrition and Immune System Function
Adequate nutrition is essential for rapid growth and development of
the young calf. Unfortunately, the definition of adequate has been
somewhat blurred in the past in order to minimize the cost of milk-feeding
programs.
The immune system’s nutrient consumption increases dramatically
when responding to microbial chal- lenges.
Rates of gluconeogenesis increase 150% to 200% during moderate
infec- tions, and the basal metabolic rate has been shown to increase 25%
to 55% during periods of sepsis in the human. Sepsis in laboratory rodents
has resulted in a loss of approximately 40% of total body protein and
reduction in rates of protein synthesis.
If nutrient intake is not optimal, calf growth and immune system
functionality will be negatively affected.
Recent research has shown the potential growth ability of young
calves and has demonstrated the importance of adequate nutrient intake on
the function of the immune system.
 Nutrition and Immune System Function
Godden and colleagues compared the feeding of waste milk and milk
replacer (MR), and demonstrated a reduction in respiratory disease
mortality by feeding an equal volume of pasteurized waste milk compared
with 0.45 kg of a 20% protein, 20% fat (20:20) MR per day. This finding
should not be taken as endorsement of whole milk or pasteurized waste
milk as the only liquid sources of increased energy and protein. There are
several MR formulations on the market that will provide increased energy
and protein compared with a 20:20 MR.
The effect of cold stress (4.7○C and 68.2% humidity) during the
milk-feeding period has also been shown to increase respiratory disease
scores and antibiotic treatments compared with calves not experiencing
cold stress (15.5○C and 59% humidity).
Although further research is needed to fully understand the
relationship between nutrient consumption and immune function, nutrition
programs should be designed to maximize lean muscle gain and skeletal
growth in order to fully support immune function and minimize
respiratory disease.
 Feeding Waste Milk
Feeding of waste milk increases growth rates of calves compared
with the same volume of 20:20 MR. However, feeding raw waste milk is a
risk factor for Mycobac- terium bovis colonization of the pharynx.
Pasteurization of waste milk has been shown to effectively reduce
pathogenic bacteria associated with respiratory disease, but like colostrum,
pasteurization remains controversial for the control of MAP. Producers
who are trying to control Johnes disease should avoid feeding waste milk
until research is available that more completely characterizes the impor-
tance of low numbers of MAP in heat-treated milk.
Farms that use pasteurization of waste milk should monitor the
effectiveness of the pasteurization process by using time- and temperature-
monitoring equipment to assure a thorough process. In addition, TPC and
coliform counts can be performed on pre- and post-pasteurization samples
to assure adequate reduction in bacterial numbers. If pasteurized waste
milk is not going to be fed immediately, particular atten- tion needs to be
paid to rapid and complete cooling followed by proper storage, because
bacterial numbers can rapidly increase in warm milk.
 Housing and Ventilation
Risk factors associated with housing calves and an increased incidence of
respiratory disease include contact with or shared air space with older animals,
relative humidity levels greater than 75%, poor air quality, increased stocking
density, bedding type, bedding density, and power washing of calf facilities while
calves are still present in the immediate area. Housing management should be
designed or modified to minimize risk factors associated with respiratory disease
development.
The individual calf hutch placed in an outdoor environment often provides
the best environment for the prevention of respiratory and other diseases of
calves.Calf hutches should be situated to minimize weather effects and should not
be placed in proximity to other objects that can contaminate the calf’s
environment, such as building exhaust fan vents or runoff from neighboring
animal lots. Hutches should be placed at least 4 feet (1.22 m) apart and thoroughly
sanitized between uses. Ideally, hutches should be moved between groups to
minimize bacterial contamination of the surface beneath the hutch. Feeding
and management practices should be organized to assure that animal contact
moves sequentially from younger to older calves. Personnel who have been
working with older animals should thoroughly disinfect clothing and hands before
proceeding back into areas that house younger animals.
 Ventilation of Unweaned Calf Barns
In an effort to improve worker comfort and reduce cold stress on animals,
there has been an increase in the use of barns to house calves, especially on
operations in the northern United States. Unfortunately, many of these barns have
been designed to maximize calf numbers, resulting in space available per calf well
below current recommendations of 2.2 to 3 m2. Ventilation systems are often
designed with minimal regard for or understanding of the microenvironments
created by individual housing of calves. Investigations of risk factors for
development of respiratory disease have demonstrated that there is often an
association between increased bacteria counts in the air in the calf’s
microenvironment and increased incidence of respiratory disease. Traditional tools
used for evaluation of air quality, such as air meters to sense ammonia levels or
manometers, have been found to be of little value in assessing risk for the
development of respiratory disease.
Association between high bacteria counts in the air and the development of
respiratory disease do not prove a causal relationship. In studies that have
identified bacteria found in air it was determined that the majority of airborne
bacteria are nonpathogenic, but even dead airborne bacteria can provide a burden
on respiratory tract defenses that would make lung tissues more susceptible to
infections.
 Ventilation of Unweaned Calf Barns
Human work environments with high levels of nonpathogenic
bacteria have been associated with a higher risk of the development
of respiratory disease.
Risk factors for increased bacteria counts in the air include
high ambient tempera- tures, the use of solid-pen dividers and solid
ends on calf pens, the use of bedding materials that provide a higher
nesting score allowing calves to nest down into the bedding material
to conserve heat (ie, straw), and smaller pen sizes per calf (<3 m2).
Humidity and ammonia levels were not found to have an effect on
bacteria concentra- tion in the air. Factors that were shown to
decrease the prevalence of respiratory disease in calves include:

●Decreasing age of the individual calf

●Lower airborne bacteria counts
●Presence of solid dividers between calves
●Increased nesting score.
 The previous sentence is contradictory to an earlier sentence
concerning risk factors of increased bacteria counts. Despite the fact
that solid dividers and increased nesting score increased airborne
bacteria counts, these factors are still protective as they reduce nose-
to-nose contact and help the calf conserve energy.
Barns that are designed to house unweaned calves in individual
hutches should be planned to provide the calf with at least 2.2 to 3 m2
of total area per calf, have solid dividers between calves, but maintain
an open front and rear of the area where possible.
Hutches should be bedded with material that allows the calf to
adequately nest during periods of cold stress. Addition of a positive
pressure ventilation system that provides approximately 15 cubic feet
per minute (CFM; 1 CFM 5 0.028 m3/min) of additional air per calf
may help improve air quality enough to provide disease control
similar to calf hutches and provide a comfortable work environment
for workers.
 Ventilation of Group-Housed Calves
Although not commonplace in the United States, group housing of
unweaned calves is becoming more prevalent, especially with the increased
awareness of animal welfare and with computer milk-feeding stations
being more readily available. Previous work has associated the use of
computer milk feeders with an increased incidence of respi- ratory disease,
although the role of stocking density was not evaluated in those trials.
More recent work has suggested that housing computer-fed calves in
groups of 10 or less results in improved growth and less morbidity
associated with respiratory disease.
These findings agree with others that have suggested limiting group
size in both unweaned and weaned calves to groups of less than 7 results in
the best overall welfare for the calves. Further research is needed to
determine whether this apparent group size effect is related to better social
welfare of the calves in smaller groups or an effect of stocking density as a
factor of barn volume. Stocking rate in a given volume of area is an
important variable in total airborne pathogen load, with a lower stocking
rate reducing respiratory morbidity (Thomas Earlywine, PhD,
presentation notes, Land O Lakes, Webster City, IA, January 2010).
 Ventilation of Group-Housed Calves
Ventilation requirements do not have a linear relationship with stocking
density. A twofold increase in stocking density requires nearly a tenfold increase in
ventilation capacity to maintain pathogenic bacteria levels at similar
concentrations. This layout proves to be especially problematic in calf barns that
are designed to be naturally ventilated or ventilated by negative pressure. These
types of barns may not provide adequate venti- lation at the level of the calf’s
environment. Positive pressure ventilation systems similar to those described in
the previous section may be necessary to adequately ventilate buildings housing
groups of unweaned and weaned calves. Calves housed in buildings should have
2.3 to 2.8 m2 or more of space available per calf.
As calves age, positive pressure ventilation systems may become
unnecessary as long as the ventilation system can provide even airflow throughout
the building, and provide 4 air turns per hour in the winter and a minimum of 30
air turns per hour in the summer.
Minimizing Weaning Stress
The process of weaning calves from milk and moving them into group
housing is a very stressful period and often results in outbreaks of respiratory
disease. Wean- ing age is variable between calf raisers. Average weaning age in the
United States is 8.2 weeks, with the majority of calves being weaned between 6 and
8 weeks of age.
 There are various recommendations for determining
when a calf is ready to be weaned, with most sources suggesting the
calf is ready when consuming 1.5 to 2.5 lbs (680–1134 g) of calf
starter per day for at least 2 to 3 consecutive days. Using this
benchmark will require that feed intake is monitored in calves
approaching the intended weaning age.
There has been little work published on the best method
to wean calves to minimize stress and associated respiratory disease.
Some sources recommended not to move calves into group pens at
the same time they are weaned but to give them 1 to 2 weeks in the
individual pen after weaning to adjust fully to starter consumption.
A Minne- sota trial saw no difference in growth rate
between grouping calves immediately versus leaving calves in
individual pens. In contrast, an Italian trial reported that weaning
calves at 49 days and immediately moving the calves to group
housing resulted in higher growth rates and reduced respiratory
treatments by one-half compared with weaning the calves and
leaving them in individual hutches for 1 week.
 In a separate trial, calves that were grouped at 49 days
and fed MR 1 time per day for 1 week had a reduced incidence of
respiratory disease compared with calves that were weaned at 49
days and then left in individual housing for 1 week (respective
respiratory incidence 5 20% vs 34%).
When calves are moved into group pens, it is important to
allow them adequate space per calf, plenty of fresh air, and ready
access to feed and water.
An additional consideration when weaning calves
should be to screen calves for signs of sickness. Calves that are
clinically sick will be shedding large numbers of pathogenic
organisms into the environment and are likely an important reservoir
for introduction of disease to other calves.
Application of a screening method to consis- tently
evaluate calves for sickness prior to weaning will reduce the number
of calves that are inadvertently weaned with active respiratory
disease.
 Metaphylaxis at Weaning
In beef feedlot production, the use of metaphylaxis at the time
of movement to the feedlot has been successfully used to reduce the
incidence of BRD.Little work has been done regarding metaphylaxis
in dairy calves until recently.
Calves treated at weaning with a full dose of tulathromycin
(Draxxin) were 50% less likely to develop BRD than calves admin-
istered approximately two-thirds the label dose of sustained-release
oxytetracycline (Bio- mycin 200).
Veterinarians and producers should carefully evaluate the
effectiveness of this practice, as it may lead to increased
antimicrobial resistance. There were no negative controls in the
study.
For more information about metaphylaxis in cattle, see the
article by Nickell and White elsewhere in this issue for further
exploration of this topic.
 Vaccine Programs in Young Calves
Effective vaccine programs for young dairy calves are difficult to
develop because of the complex nature of the immature immune system of
calves and the complexities of management systems in which the calves live.
When developing vaccine programs, a risk assessment should be completed
to determine the need for certain vaccines based on pathogen risks and
breaks in immunity, such as FPT.
The newborn calf has a functional immune system that is able to
respond to antigens, provided maternal antibody is not present. Many of the
native defense mechanisms have decreased activity in the first weeks to
months of life. If calves are at high risk for the develop- ment of disease due
to high incidence of FPT in the herd, vaccination in the first month of life to
develop antibody protection may be warranted.
One method for overcoming maternal antibody is to use vaccines
administered at the mucosal surface, that is, intranasal (IN) vaccines. IN
vaccines will result in the development of immune proteins (primarily IgA)
on the mucosal surface where poten- tial pathogens will be invading.
 This antibody will neutralize infectious agents at the mucosal
surface; thus preventing infection rather than just reducing severity
of disease as is expected with parenteral vaccine administration. IN
vaccine will also induce interferon release at the mucosal surface,
which will provide a nonspecific anti- viral environment and may
stimulate maturation of the immune system.
There is some consensus amongst calf consultants that the use
of modified live vaccines in the first months of life will benefit the
calf through the development of cell-mediated immunity; however,
there is very little evidence to support this prac- tice.
In these programs, calves are vaccinated several times during
the first months of life, sometimes at intervals as close as 1 week.
Extrapolating from research from other species,
overvaccinating calves may lead to negative outcomes such as immu-
nologic tolerance or autoimmunity. A small body of evidence exists to
support this immunologic response, but much more research is
needed in this area to explore this practice.
 Vaccination programs should be designed to address the
continuous-flow nature of most dairy operations as compared with
seasonal vaccination patterns used in beef operations.
It may be important to incorporate vaccines into breeding-age
heifers prior to pregnancy if vaccines are not approved for pregnant
animals. In addition, modified live infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
(IBR) vaccines can cause necrosis of the corpus luteum, so IBR
vaccines should not be administered close to breeding season in IBR-
naı¨ve animals.
Immunology and vaccinology are rapidly developing fields of
veterinary medicine, which should help answer some of the essential
questions veterinarians have regarding development of effective
vaccination programs for dairy calves.
Readers are referred to the article by Ackermann and
colleagues elsewhere in this issue for further exploration of this topic.
 Quarantine Procedures for New Arrivals and Sick Animals
Off-site heifer raising and purchasing herd replacements
represents a significant risk for the introduction of disease to the
resident herd. At present, 9.3% of all dairy herds, representing
11.5% of heifers raised in the United States, are raised off-site. When
heifers are raised off-site, approximately 63% of those heifers are
comingled with cattle from other farms. Approximately 39% of dairy
operations brought some outside animals onto their farm during the
previous year, including heifers raised off-site.
On those operations, just over 20% of the farms quarantined
animals from the resident population on arrival. Incorporating
quarantine facilities into dairy farm design plans is often overlooked
even though it could provide insurance against disease proliferation.
A written quarantine plan should be established that addresses
caretaker and animal movement plans; and protocols for feeding,
vaccination, disease testing, and facility disinfection to minimize the
spread of disease between newly- arriving groups and the resident
herd.
 Quarantine Procedures for New Arrivals and Sick Animals
If the dairy is purchasing lactating dairy cows, plans for
milking cows in an isolated facility will also need to be made. Ideally,
animals should be quarantined for a minimum of 14 to 21 days.
Introduction of bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) into a dairy herd
is often through a new heifer entering the herd, either home-raised or
purchased.
Control of BVD outbreaks has been fairly well achieved
through vaccination and other control programs. Persis- tently
infected (PI) animals are an important reservoir of disease
transmission.
As part of a complete biosecurity program for the prevention
of respiratory disease, all new and returning herd arrivals should be
tested by an appropriate screening test for the presence of virus in
the submitted tissue as part of the quarantine process. In addition, in
herds purchasing pregnant animals and herds trying to achieve BVD-
negative status, calves should be tested at birth.
 Housing of sick animals in a location away from healthy
animals is an essential method for the control of disease spread on
dairy farms.
Animals that are clinically sick will be shedding large numbers
of pathogenic organisms into the environment and are likely an
important reservoir for introduction of disease to other animals,
especially immunocompromised animals such as young calves and
peri-parturient cows.
When selecting a site for the hospital facility, care must be
taken to minimize contact with healthy animals and assure that the
predominant airflow does not move toward clinically normal
animals.
 CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT OF RESPIRATORY DISEASE
OUTBREAKS IN DAIRY CALVES
Veterinarians are not usually asked to evaluate individual sick calves
unless there has been a history of respiratory disease in the past or there
currently is an outbreak in which several calves are affected. To completely
evaluate the disease process, a complete examination including collection of
a thorough history should be completed, even if examining only one calf.
Collection of history should facilitate the development of a list of all
calf-rearing practices that could potentially have a negative impact on calf
health.
All responses should be validated with physical examinations,
record analysis, and facilities evaluation, if possible. Record analysis can be
used to determine previous morbidity and mortality rates and to assess
whether there are patterns associated with certain seasons of the year or
stocking rates. To complete the workup, the nutritional program,
vaccination schedules, and treatment protocols should be examined. The
calf caretakers’ abilities to detect cases of respiratory disease should also be
assessed.
 CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT OF RESPIRATORY DISEASE OUTBREAKS IN
DAIRY CALVES
Physical examinations should be performed on as many clinically-affected
animals as are available to determine the range of clinical signs and to validate the
true pres- ence of respiratory disease. Many dairy producers do not recognize
early signs of respiratory disease. Dairymens’ diagnoses of pneumonia have been
reported to have a sensitivity of 56% and a specificity of 100%.
This screening system evaluates rectal temperature, nasal discharge, cough
and ocular discharge, and ear position to assign an individual respiratory severity
score for each calf. Validation of the screening system has been completed based on
bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid cytology and culture. Calves that have a
composite score of more than 4 are considered to have respiratory disease and
should be treated accordingly
Application of the UW screening system across all ages of available animals
allows for the determination of age of onset of the respiratory problems,
encouraging the calf caretaker to initiate therapy earlier in the course of the
disease.
The screening system can also be used to determine which calves need
therapy, monitor treatment efficacy, and evaluate calf caretakers’ ability to
diagnose and treat calves. If used correctly, greater than 85% of calves that need to
be treated should be correctly identified by calf caretakers.
 Selection of Therapeutic Agents
Selection of a therapeutic agent should be based on isolated or
suspected etiologic agents based on previous experience with the herd. The
most common bacterial agents associated with ECP include Pasteurella
multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Histophilus somni, and various
Mycoplasma species. Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) and bovine
coronavirus have been incriminated as primary agents in outbreaks of
ECP.
Respiratory viruses (IBR, BVD, PI3, and BRSV) invade the upper
respiratory tract tissues, resulting in the development of rhinitis, tracheitis,
and/or bronchitis; this sometimes leads to the development of secondary
bacterial invasion of the lower respiratory tract and the subsequent
development of pneumonia.
However, there are many cases of ECP in which no virus pathogens
are isolated from affected animals, suggesting that viruses are not always
involved in the development of ECP or that sampling occurs after optimal
ability to detect virus.
 Diagnostic Methods to Assist Treatment Decisions
Necropsy can be an important diagnostic tool, but too often the wrong
calves are selected to provide accurate diagnostic and therapeutic information.
Performing necropsies on animals that are chronic poor doers or animals
that would be classified as treatment failures should be avoided. Necropsies on such
animals may result in the isolation of resistant strains of bacteria that may not
truly represent the bacterial ecology of the initial pathogens.
A more appropriate approach to using necropsy examinations would be to
sacrifice acutely-affected animals. However, this should not be construed as a
suggestion that necropsy examinations should not be completed if acutely-affected
animals are not available for necropsy.
Results of these examinations can provide critical information to determine
deficiencies in manage- ment, such as nutritional insufficiency, and can be an
important tool in client educa- tion. Necropsy examinations are essential for the
diagnosis of aspiration pneumonia, which may be common in herds that are
incorrectly using esophageal feeders to deliver colostrum, milk, or oral electrolytes.
Alternative methods to isolate the agents responsible for acute cases of ECP would
be to use deep pharyngeal swabs, transtracheal wash (TTW), or BAL. Six acutely-
affected animals should be selected for sampling based on physical examinations or
the use of another screening method, such as the UW Calf Respiratory Scoring
Chart.
 Diagnostic Methods to Assist Treatment Decisions
Deep pharyngeal swabs can be done rapidly and are less
invasive than TTW or BAL.
Two or three individual swabs should be collected from each
calf as described by McGuirk. The number of swabs that should be
collected per calf depends on type of diagnostic tests that will be
performed; bacterial culture and sensitivity, myco- plasma culture,
or viral detection. Presence of bacterial pathogens in high numbers,
significant viral agents, or 2 or more swabs from the group of 6
testing positive for Mycoplasma spp is considered significant and can
be used to direct treatment and management decisions.
Comparative analysis between nasopharyngeal swabs and
postmortem lung lavage has been used to validate the use of
nasopharyngeal swabs in this manner. Positive predictive value for M
haemolytica and M bovis was deter- mined to be 100%. The negative
predictive values were determined to be 67% and 33% for M
hemolytica and M bovis, respectively.
 Diagnostic Methods to Assist Treatment Decisions
Deep pharyngeal swabs can be done rapidly and are less
invasive than TTW or BAL.
Genotypic analysis of matched isolates from nasopharyngeal
swabs and lung lavage shows high degrees of similarity,
demonstrating that the presence of bacteria on nasopharyngeal swabs
is highly repre- sentative of lung etiology. These results were obtained
on clinical animals selected as described, and similar results would
likely not be seen without appropriate case selection.
BAL or TTW can also be used to collect samples for culture,
sensitivity, and viral detection, and can provide samples for cytologic
evaluation of respiratory secretions. Bacterial isolation of a
homogeneous bacterial growth in excess of 106 CFU/mL or a positive
M bovis culture is considered significant. Determination of leukocyte
popu- lation by cytologic evaluation showing a decreased proportion
of macrophages (<61%) or increased proportion of neutrophils
(>39%) is considered indicative of an inflammatory response in the
lung, even with a negative culture result.
 RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN ADULT DAIRY CATTLE
Despite the vast amount of literature concerning BRD in the
dairy calf, there is nearly a complete paucity of information
concerning adult dairy cattle. Incidence of pneu- monia in the adult
dairy animal is relatively low (3.3%) but the proportional contribu-
tion to overall mortality on the dairy farm is 11.3%, indicating that
response to therapy is relatively low.
This lack of response may be caused by failure to recognize
clinical disease early, or that these cases represent recrudescence of
latent cases of ECP.
The concepts of control and prevention are very similar to the
calf, but there are notable aspects that differ. Similarities include the
maintenance of a functional immune system through delivery of
sound nutrition, proper vaccination and minimal stress; biosecurity;
and provision of adequate ventilation. The most notable difference
between the 2 groups is the increased metabolic demand placed on
the dairy cow through lactation.
 Immune stress associated with parturition and lactation plays
an important role in disease development.
Lymphocyte and neutrophil function decrease around the time
of parturition even though neutrophil numbers in the systemic
circulation are increased.The proportion of T lymphocytes is also
altered, resulting in higher expression of T-suppressor cells around
the time of calving and slower clearance of altered cells.
Stress introduced by negative energy balance and diseases
such as ketosis and hypocalcemia make cows more susceptible to
new and more severe infections during early lactation, including
respiratory disease.
Conditions that negatively affect dry matter intake and
nutrient absorption, such as heat stress, subacute respiratory
acidosis (SARA), and the inadvertent inclusion of mycotoxins in the
diet may result in altered immune function and increased
susceptibility to respi- ratory disease. SARA can also have a direct
effect on respiratory disease via caudal vena caval syndrome.
 Etiologic Agents and Diagnostic Procedures
The etiologic agents in the adult animal are similar to those
mentioned for calves except that M haemolytica plays a more significant
role in adult animals. Herd workup procedures and diagnostic testing
methods are also similar to those for the calf. Clinicians should pay
particular attention to attempting to collect samples from acutely-affected
animals in order to return results that are clinically relevant.
Clini-cians should also assess overall herd health by doing a
complete farm assessment to assure that conditions such as excessive
negative energy and protein balance, ketosis, hypocalcemia, or SARA are
not contributing to an increased incidence of respiratory disease.
Preventative Practices for Adult Dairy Cattle
Prevention practices associated with respiratory disease control in
adult dairy cattle include immune system maintenance through sound
nutrition, proper vaccination, and minimizing stress; biosecurity; and
provision of adequate ventilation. Biosecurity practices for adult animals
are similar to those in dairy calves. Readers should refer to the section on
biosecurity earlier in this article for more discussion on the topic.
 Maintenance of the Immune System
As discussed earlier, immune suppression is a major
complication for disease preven- tion in adult dairy cattle. In
addition to nutrition and management practices to minimize the
effects of negative energy and protein balance as well as mineral
insufficiency, husbandry practices must be maintained to maximize
cow comfort and minimize stress.
Such practices include prevention of overcrowding, minimizing
pen moves, and averting social stress by incorporating management
practices such as housing first-lactation cows separately from older
cows. Discussion of nutritional and manage- ment practices that
support a strong immune system and reduce stress are beyond the
scope of this article. Readers should consult the article by
Ackermann and colleagues elsewhere in this issue for further
exploartion of this topic.
When designing vaccine programs for adult animals, a risk
assessment of each indi- vidual dairy operation should be completed
to determine the need for certain vaccines.
 Maintenance of the Immune System
These decisions should be based on pathogen risks and
potential breaks in immunity, such as immune suppression
associated with the periparturient period.
To avoid immune suppression in the post-parturient period, it
would be prudent to avoid administration of vaccines for at least 3 to
4 weeks after calving.
Consideration must be given to the need for transfer of
colostral antibodies against disease threats of importance for the
dairy.
Vaccines should be administered at least 2 to 4 weeks before
the expected calving date to avoid immune suppression, thus
providing suffi- cient time for immunoglobulin transfer to the
colostrum to provide for adequate passive transfer.
 Ventilation
Ventilation systems need to be designed to limit the buildup of
microbial agents, dust particles, noxious gases, heat, and humidity.
Adult dairy cattle are minimally affected by cold stress caused by
typical winter temperatures seen in the northern United States.
Barns may be underventilated during winter months to prevent
freezing of water and manure systems, resulting in an increased
incidence of respiratory disease.
Ventilation systems should provide 36 CFM per 1000 lbs (454
kg) of body weight in cold weather and 335 CFM per 1000 lbs of
body weight during hot weather. An alter- native method to assess
ventilation function would be to determine the number of air
exchanges per hour.
During cold weather, 4 air exchanges must occur per hour
whereas a minimum of 30 air exchanges per hour are needed during
summer months. Supplemental cooling will be necessary to minimize
the effects of heat stress when the temperature heat index exceeds.
 PREVENTION- BIOSECURITY! Specific
immunoprophylaxis! BIOBOS RESPI 2 INTRANASAL

Nasal spray, lyophilisate and solvent for suspension.

The lyophilisate has a porous structure, off-white or yellowish colour.
The solvent is clear, colourless solution.
Composition
Live attenuated Bovine parainfluenza type 3 virus (PI3V), strain Bio 23/A 105.0–107.5 TCID50
Live attenuated Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), strain Bio 24/A 104.0–106.0 TCID50
*TCID50 – Tissue culture infectious dose – 50 %
Indication
For active immunization of calves from 10 days of age against BRSV and Bovine PI3V to
reduce the amount and duration of excretion of both viruses.
Onset of immunity: 10 days after a single vaccination.
Duration of immunity: 12 weeks after a single vaccination.
Dosage, application and vaccination scheme
Nasal use.
 PREVENTION- BIOSECURITY! Specific
immunoprophylaxis!

Vaccination scheme:
Administer one dose (2 ml) of the reconstituted vaccine intranasally (1 ml
of the vaccine into each nostril) to calves from 10
days of age using an intranasal applicator!
Aseptically reconstitute the lyophilisate by
adding the enough of amount of the solvent into the vial containing the lyophilisat
After dissolution the volume is transferred into vial with solvent.
Shake well. Required volume of the reconstituted vaccine is drawn up
from the bottle by syringe with a needle, the needle is then replaced by
an intranasal applicator and the vaccine is administered. The applicator is used to
administer the required volume of the vaccine from the syringe into nostrils of the
vaccinated animal in the aerosol
form. The applicator used should spray the vaccine in the form of 30 µm to 100
µm droplets.
It is recommended to use a new or cleaned by cellulose applicator for each
animal, in order to prevent the transmission of infection.
PREVENTION- BIOSECURITY! Specific immunoprophylaxis!

BOVILIS® BOVIPAST RSP

An aqueous suspension for subcutaneous injection. One dose (5 ml) of the

vaccine contains at least 105.5 TCID50 inactivated Bovine Respiratory Syncytial
virus (strain EV 908) and at least 107.3 TCID50 Parainfluenza-3- virus (strain SF-4
Reisinger), together with 9 x 109 cells
inactivated Mannheimia haemolytica bacteria (serotype A1) propagated under
conditions of iron restriction. Aluminium hydroxide and Quil A are included as
adjuvants. Sodium timerfonate is included as a preservative.
For the active immunisation of cattle against
–Parainfluenza3 virus (PI3 virus), to reduce infections.
–Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus (BRSV) to reduce infection and
clinical signs.
–Mannheimia haemolytica serotype A1, to reduce infection, mortality,
clinical signs, lung lesions and bacterial invasion of the lung caused by serotypes
A1 and A6.
PREVENTION- BIOSECURITY! Specific immunoprophylaxis!

BOVILIS® BOVIPAST RSP

.
 PREVENTION- BIOSECURITY! Specific
immunoprophylaxis!

Rispoval 3
Rispoval 3 is a multi-valent vaccine for respiratory
disease. It is for the active immunisation of cattle
over 12 weeks of age to protect against RSV, Pi3
and BVD viruses.
ActiveIngredients: Modified live strains of
Parainfluenza 3(Pi3) Virus and Bovine
Respiratory Syncytial Virus (BRSV) and
inactivated Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus (BVD)
Indications: For active immunisation of calves to
reduce virus excretion and clinical signs
of PI3, BRSV and BVD
Two doses are administered by
intramuscular injection, 3-4 weeks apart.
Dosage: 1x4ml dose from 12 weeks of age
by intramuscular injection followed by a second
4ml dose3-4weeks later
 SUMMARY
Incidence rates for BRD in dairy cattle have remained essentially
unchanged over the last 20 years. Dairy calves are more commonly affected
than adult animals, with BRD being the principal cause of death in weaned
dairy calves. The lack of progress in controlling respiratory disease
demonstrates that there continues to be significant room for improvement
in controlling this multifactorial syndrome, and that dairy producers need
assistance in applying evolving husbandry practices to improve the health
of dairy cattle.
Calf management programs that focus on the development of a
robust immune system through adequate passive transfer, adequate energy
and protein supply, sound biosecurity practices, and vaccination programs
have helped alleviate problems on some herds.
There is minimal information regarding control of respiratory
problems in adult dairy cattle.
Therefore, it seems prudent to focus the management strategies on
preventing disease through sound management of the transition period,
along with sound vaccination and biosecurity programs.
 Prevention and control
Specific immunoprophylaxis
of some enteric diseases in
cattle
 Prevention and control Specific immunoprophylaxis!

Rotavec Corona
While calves are fed colostrum from vaccinated cows during
the first two to four weeks of life, these antibodies have been
demonstrated to:
- reduce the severity of diarrhoea caused by E. coli F5 (K99);
- reduce the incidence of scours caused by rotavirus;
- reduce the shedding of virus by calves infected with
rotavirus or coronavirus.
 Prevention and control Specific immunoprophylaxis!

Rotavec Corona
Onset of Immunity:
Passive protection against all active substances will
commence from the start of colostrum feeding.
Duration of Immunity:
In calves artificially fed with pooled colostrum,
protection will continue until colostrum feeding ceases.
In naturally suckled calves, protection against
rotavirus will persist for at least 7 days and against coronavirus
for at least 14 days
 Prevention and control Specific immunoprophylaxis!

Rotavec Corona
Dose - 2 ml by intramuscular injection.
The recommended site is the side of the neck.
A single injection should be given during each pregnancy between
12 and 3 weeks before calving is expected.
Colostrum feeding Protection of calves depends on the physical
presence of colostrum antibodies (from vaccinated cows) within the gut for
the duration of the first 2 - 3 weeks of life until calves develop their own
immunity. Thus it is essential to ensure adequate colostrum feeding for the
whole of this period to maximise the efficacy of vaccination.
All calves must receive adequate colostrum from their dams within
6 hours of birth. Suckled calves will continue to receive adequate
colostrum naturally by feeding from vaccinated cows.
 Prevention and control Specific immunoprophylaxis!

ROTAGAL

Inactivated bovine rotavirus strain TM-91

Serotype G6P1 Inactivated bovine coronavirus strain C-197
Escherichia coli strain EC/17 expressing adhesin F5 (K99)
For active immunization of pregnant cows and heifers to provide
calves with passive immunity targeted at reduction of mortality, incidence
and severity of diarrhoea caused by bovine rotavirus, coronavirus and
enteropathogenic E. coli F5 (K99) and reduction of rotavirus and
coronavirus shedding by infected calves.
Onset of immunity: Passive immunity starts with colostrum feeding.
For intramuscular use. One dose: 3 ml
 Prevention and control Specific immunoprophylaxis!
ROTAGAL

One injection in the course of each pregnancy between the week 12 – 3 before
calving is expected.
Feeding of colostrum
The protection of calves depends on adequate ingestion of colostrum from
vaccinated cows. Measures should be taken to ensure that calves receive sufficient amounts of
colostrum within the first few days of life. It is important that all calves receive sufficient
amounts of colostrum within the first six hours after calving. The highest content of
antibodies in the colostrum is reached 72 hours after parturition, however absorption of
antibodies in the gut of calves is highest within the first 6 – 8 hours after parturition. In the
dairy herd, it is recommended that colostrum/milk from the first 6 – 8 milkings of vaccinated
mothers is collected and pooled. During the first two weeks of life, the calves must be fed with
2,5 – 3 liters of this pooled colostrum/milk per day.
To achieve optimum results and to reduce infection pressure on the farm, a whole
herd cow vaccination policy should be adopted and all newborn calves should be fed with the
pooled colostrum.
 Prevention and control Specific immunoprophylaxis!

FIRST DEFENSE® is a capsule containing antibodies which aid in the reduction of

morbidity and mortality from neonatal calf scours caused by K99+ E. coli and bovine
coronavirus. Maximal protection is achieved when administered in the first 12 hours after
birth and used in conjunction with good colostrum feeding and calf nutrition programs.
Neutralizing antibodies against bovine coronavirus as well as antibodies specific for E. coli
K99+ pilus antigens present in FIRST DEFENSE® are prepared from hyperimmune
bovine colostrum.
A FIRST DEFENSE® capsule containing dried colostral antibodies dissolves
readily upon reaching the calf’s stomach to provide passive protection against intestinal
infection. Specific antibodies in FIRST DEFENSE®serve to block enterotoxigenic E. coli
adherence and interfere with virus infection of intestinal epithelial cells, thereby reducing
scours-related morbidity and mortality.
Sheep and Goat Herd Health
Management
 Course description
Health and production management in sheep and goat farms.
Important diseases and disorders in goat and sheep emphasizing on
etiology, pathogenesis, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, prevention
and control.
Course outline
 Introduction to sheep and goat
 General health and management
 Routine observations and procedures
 Infectious diseases in sheep and goats!
 Metabolic diseases in sheep and goats
 Parasitic diseases and deworming programs
 Reproduction management of sheep and goats
 Lamb and kid cares
 Tests and diagnostics
 Starting a sheep enterprise
 Before getting into the sheep business
– ask yourself these questions:
 Do I like sheep?
 Will sheep fit into my current operation?
 What size of sheep operation do I want?
 Do I have adequate facilities to handle the number I want?
 Will I have an adequate feed supply?
 Do I want to lamb in the spring or fall?
 What breeds should I select to achieve my goals?

 When and where can I market my lambs?

 Could I have a predator problem?
 Starting a sheep enterprise
 Why raisesheep?
 Pasture
 Building and fences
 Protection from predators
 Seasonality of breeds
 Selecting breeding stock

 Internal parasites
 Marketing
 Starting a meat goat production
 What do I expect from my goat operation?
 What is a good herd size to start out with?
 What sort of goats am I looking for?
 What breed should I choose?

 Some breeds and strains of goats genetically selected

by man for meat production
 Spanish meat goat
 Tennessee meat goat
 South African boer goat
 New Zealand Kiko goat
A guide for the new or prospective
dairy goat owner
 Dairy goat management
 Recommended starting equipment and supplies
 Health care
 Housing
 Feeding

Starting a meat goat production

 Breeding
 Kidding
 Herd health program for meat goats
 Important of health program
 All effective animal health program is an essential part
of a successful meat goat management program.
 Owner and the vet work out -> medication,
vaccinations, wormers, injuries, production, breeding
and culling
 The best economic returns are realized when disease
problems are at a minimum.
 Observation and records
 Spending a few minutes every day watching your animals
is time well spent.
 You can learn the normal behavior and attitude of your
goats and then recognize anything that may be wrong.
 If abnormal behavior is observed, use common sense, your experience
and knowledge and your physical senses to determine the problem.
A physical exam may show an
abscess, cut or bruise
 How is the behavior abnormal?
 Is head down or are the ears drooping?
 Is the animal off-feed?
 Is the respiratory rate normal at 12 – 20 times/min?

 Is there a fever?
 Temperatures range from 101.7 –103.5 F with an average
of 102.3F

 Is heart rate normal at 70 – 100 times/min?

 His this disease occurred previously?
 Nutrition and Feeding Practices
 Goats too skinny or too fat and goats off-feed are the most
common nutritional problems.
 The quality and quantity of feed during the dry period affects the
doe and kids throughout at least the year after.
 Is there a fever?
 Temperatures range from 101.7 –103.5 F with an average of
102.3F
 Is heart rate normal at 70 – 100 times/min?
 His this disease occurred previously? Meat goats should be fed
similarly to maximize production while minimizing feed costs.
 As such, good quality roughage should be the basis of the ration,
and minimal amounts of a 14 – to 18 – percent protein
concentrate should be fed as a supplement when does are nursing
kids.
 Nutrition and Feeding Practices
 Higher producing does with multiple kids may require additional energy
in the ration.
 Periodically, feel your does to determine their body condition and avoid
overfeeding grain to does in late lactation.
 Usually does will not need extra grain after the kids are weaned unless
they have poor quality roughage or you want to flush the does before
breeding.
 Fat goats are more prone to go off feed, have problems at kidding and
tend to have pregnancy toxemia.
 Loose or block trace mineral salt should be available at all times.
 Goats are susceptible to copper deficiency and, unlike sheep are fairly
resistant to copper toxicity.
 Water should be fresh and plentiful.
 Bucks and wethers fed on substantial amount of grain are prone to
develop urinary calculi.
 Genetics may also be a factor in the disease.
 Annual calendar
 Dry doe
 At the drying off, check to verify that the does is in good body
condition and will be in adequate body condition to withstand
the draw of nutrients from milk when she kids.
 Usually, good quality forage will be adequate for does in good
condition when dry
 Inject does with 250 mg vitamin E and 5 mg selenium 3 weeks
before due date if white muscle disease is a problem or over 10
% of the kids die within 3 days of birth.
 Provide clean yards and housing. Sanitation is essential.
 Annual calendar
 Kidding
 Provide a clean, dry, well-ventilated area
 Examine doe’s udder for mastitis
 Kids should receive colostrum within one hour following birth
 Dip or inject navels of kids with iodine if they appears to be a
problem with navel ill or related diseases
 Give weak or sick kids 50 mg vitamin E (or vitamin ADE) and 1
mg selenium
 Kids at 1 day to weaning
 If a large commercial herd, observe closely to ensure that at
least 90% of the kids live.
 Castrate male kids unless they are to be sold before 90 d of age
 Annual calendar
 Consider giving tetanus toxoid and clostridial disease vaccination
at 3 – 4 wk before weaning and at weaning, especially if you are
feeding out the kids
 Kids should be checked closely and culled for genetic disorders,
especially hermaphrodism and abnormal teat structure
 Deworming program
 To minimize contamination of uninfected goats, maintain a dry,
clean environment with a sound manure management plan.
 Depending on location and density, deworming should be repeated
as needed. For most producers with a high density of goats,
worming will be 4 to 6 times per year.
 Kids should be dewormed at weaning and treated for coccidia if it
is in the herd.
 Adult goats should be dewormed at least 1 – 2 times per year, but
as often as needed to control various types of worms
 Annual calendar
 Alternate dewormers since goats may build up worms
that are resistant to one dewormer. At least once per year,
goats should be dewormed for tapeworms.

 Vaccination program”
 Your vaccination program should be for disease in your herd
and should be developed in consultation with your local
veterinarian.
 Foot care program
 Trim hooves as needed but usually at least once a year. Herds in
confinement may require trimming 2 – 4 times per year.
 Fence goats out of wet, marshy area where the organisms
causing foot rot are more likely to grow.
 Annual calendar
 Use a foot bath of dilute copper sulfate if foot rot becomes a herd
problem
 Treat foot rot with appropriate antibiotics. Follow recommended
withholding quidelines

 External parasite control program

 Control flies with appropriate insecticides and strict manure
management

 Breeding program
 If suspected, test all breeding-age animals periodically for
brucellosis, caprine arthritis encephalitis or CAE and
tuberculosis.
 Observe the buck for libido and conduct a breeding soundness
exam if there are any suggestions of him not being a fertile
 Annual calendar
 Try to have a buck for each 20 – 30 does
 Mate buck to no close relative so that inbreeding is minimized.
 Maintain good records so that you know the parentage of each
goat.
 Culling
 Culling is an essential to the overall productivity of the herd.
 Goats will be injured, some will not become pregnant during
the breeding season and some will produce less milk than you
are willing to accept.
 Assignment
 Grouping
 Topic
 Sheep enterprise
 Dairy Goat enterprise
 Meat Goat enterprise
The housing of milk goats
 Introduction
 Pressure on housing develops because breeders accommodate
more and more goats in a single building.
 Goats are sensitive to the influence of their surroundings.
 Adequate housing should be especially important to the breeder.

Environmental factors for goats

 Temperature – constant at 38.5°C and this must be maintained.
 Increase humidity can exercise a negative effect on goat herds as
there is a concurrent rise in the probable level of pulmonary
diseases
 In the design of housing, air flow is a point of concern
 Light is important for both the comfort of animal and its owner.
Standard techniques in goat breeding
 Several means available to overcome potentially negative
environmental factors such as humidity and temperature
 Goat keepers should learn correct ways for using equipment and
incorporating aspects of good building design.
 Care should be taken with respect to some elementary rules of
sanitation
 Standard techniques in goat

breeding
2
Space requirements : 0.50 m (minimum) for an adult goat in
stall housing, 1.50 m2 for an adult goat in open housing with and
outside yard, 0.30 m2 for kid before weaning
 The surface of the bedding area for each animal must be adapted
with a necessary feeding trough (0.4 m per goat)
 Air volume should also be considered, with 3 m at the lowest part
of the building and 3 m width for a central feeding corridor. Each
goat should have an air volume of 9 m3
 Ventilation and insulation
 Ventilation will affect the inside temperature and humidity of the
goat house.
 A day of fair and foul weather could have a marked influence of
pulmonary diseases.
Standard techniques in goat breeding
 Sanitary problem – the keeper is not aware of the important balance
which must be established between animal health and welfare and the
goats’ surrounding.
 Sanitary protection – ensuring good sanitary protection for goats,
regularly decontamination
 Defective environmental factors – negative environmental factors can
have a marked effect on milking female goats.
 In extreme heat, the goat will want to lose as much as heat as possible
and therefore, it consumes less food.
 Working conditions in goat houses
for breeder
 Goat house conception – the aim of the breeder should be to find a
compromise between the goat’s natural living conditions and his
own requirements to organize his work efficiently and profitably
 RESPIRATORY DISEASES OF SHEEP

In general, respiratory disease in sheep results from a

combination of appropriate risk factors, including management
practices as well as disease agents. Clinical signs are not necessarily
specific to the cause, and several agents may contribute.
Furthermore, recognition of respiratory disease may be
difficult in sheep, as they tend to hide illness.
Particular attention to behavior, appetite, and potential risk factors
are important in evaluating the flock and individual animals alike.
Vaccination for ovine respiratory disease is limited; use of the
bovine product Nalsagen may help lower incidence of PI3
pneumonias, but is unproven. Use of other bovine products is not
advised.
 Viral Respiratory Diseases
a. Description: Like viral infections in other production livestock,
sheep viral diseases typically don’t act alone, and likely cause clinical
disease in concert with other infectious agents. Signs of viral respiratory
disease are typically mild, and include lethargy, anorexia, +/-pyrexia, +/-
cough, tachypnea, dyspnea, tachycardia, sneezing, nasal discharge
(typically serous).
b. Etiology: Mild or co-contaminant: PI3, adenovirus, RSV,
herpesvirus; Enzootic nasal tumors and Ovine pulmonary carcinoma
(retroviruses); Ovine progressive pneumonia (lentivirus);
c. Diagnosis: Suspicion with PE, radiographs, U/S, serum titers.
Swabs, tracheal wash, thoracocentesis, biopsy or necropsy for virus
isolation, PCR, ELISA, AGID depending on the disease in question
d. Treatment: As with most viral diseases, supportive therapy with
antibiotic treatment to target secondary bacterial infection is typical.
Surgery for nasal tumors is typically not performed. Management
practices may include vaccination (limited), genetic selection (OPP), and
culling of affected animals. Control of stress and adequate husbandry are
essential for prevention.
 Bacterial Respiratory Diseases
a. Description: signs are similar to viral infection, making it
difficult to discern between these etiologies on physical exam.
Additionally, a single etiology is rare. Nasal discharge may be thicker and
more opaque compared to viral infections. Changes in lung sounds may be
more evident in the cranioventral regions.
b. Etiology: Infections in upper and lower airways are commonly
associated with opportunistic bacteria, such as Pasteurella multocida. In
addition to lower airways infections, Pasteurella has been implicated in
nasal infections causing turbinate destruction, as well as septicemia,
arthritis, otitis media, and mastitis. Mannheimia haemolytica Type A2
(bovine form is type A1) and Biberstinia (formerly Pasteurella) trehalosi
biotype T are more common pathogen in the lower airways.
c. Diagnosis: along with diagnostics for viral pneumonias, culture
and sensitivity before treatment is initiated.
d. Treatment: similar to viral treatment until pathogen can be
identified. Antibiotics should be utilized if there is any concern of bacterial
infection. Many antibiotics and NSAIDS will be off label in small
ruminants-refer to FARAD for appropriate guidelines, and keep records.
 Chronic Enzootic Pneumonia
a. Description: The mild clinical presentation of the disease lends itself to the
chronic duration and damage. Co-infection with Pasteurella or other viral and bacterial
pathogens may cause more significant signs, but may also complicate diagnosis.
Management and husbandry practices are key in prevention, including good ventilation
and minimizing stress.
b. Etiology: Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae, which is present in healthy respiratory
tracts, encapsulates and invades the upper airways. Secondary invaders such as
Pasteurella and Chlamydophilia may take advantage. The long, chronic progression of the
disease allows for decreased detection, and high morbidity but low mortality in affected
sheep may induce carriers and makes eradication challenging. Contagious in nature,
Mycoplasma is spread through direct or aerosolized contact.
c. Diagnosis: usually based on necropsy findings, although changes in lungs may
not be present. Culture can be confirmatory, but must specifically be requested, as initial
culture will not yield Mycoplasmas. ELISA is available, but may cross react.
d. Treatment: In all species, Mycoplasma is challenging to treat, and protocols
are based on studies in cattle. Florfenicol (Nuflor), tulathromycin (Draxxin),
gamithromycin (Zactran) and enrofloxacin (Baytril) are labeled for Mycoplasma bovis
infection in cattle. Long-acting oxytetracycline has been shown to have some effectiveness.
No label exists for sheep, consult FARAD. Eradication involves an appropriate quarantine
and testing strategy, and changes in management practices.
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