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TRANSLATION REVISION
AND POST-EDITING
Translation Revision and Post-editing looks at the apparently dissolving boundary between
correcting translations generated by human brains and those generated by machines.
It presents new research on post-editing and revision in government and corporate
translation departments, translation agencies, the literary publishing sector and the
volunteer sector, as well as on training in both types of translation checking work.
This collection includes empirical studies based on surveys, interviews and
keystroke logging, as well as more theoretical contributions questioning such
traditional distinctions as translating versus editing. The chapters discuss revision
and post-editing involving eight languages: Afrikaans, Catalan, Dutch, English,
Finnish, French, German and Spanish. Among the topics covered are translator/
reviser relations and revising/post-editing by non-professionals.
The book is key reading for researchers, instructors and advanced students in
Translation Studies as well as for professional translators with a special interest in
checking translations.

Maarit Koponen is a Lecturer at the University of Turku, Finland, where her

research and teaching focus on translation technology, post-editing and translation
processes. In 2019–2020, she worked as a postdoctoral researcher in the EU-funded
research project MeMAD (Methods for Managing Audiovisual Data) at the University
of Helsinki, researching machine translation and post-editing for television subtitling.

Brian Mossop was a Canadian government French-English translator, reviser and

trainer from 1974 to 2014. He teaches revision to BA and MA students at York
University in Toronto and leads revision workshops for professional translators. He
holds an MA in linguistics and is the author of Revising and Editing for Translators,
4th edition (Routledge 2020).

Isabelle S. Robert is a Lecturer in French in the Department of Applied

Linguistics, Translation and Interpreting, University of Antwerp, Belgium, where
she teaches undergraduate courses in French text production and Translation
Studies, and graduate courses in Dutch–French translation, revision and translation
technology. Her main research interests are audiovisual translation, translation
(revision) processes and sight translation.

Giovanna Scocchera has been a literary translator from English to Italian since
2000, working for major Italian publishers both as translator and reviser. She has
taught translation and revision for publishing purposes at several institutions. She
earned a PhD on revision in the publishing sector in 2015 and has pursued her
research interest in revision training and education.
TRANSLATION
REVISION AND
POST-EDITING
Industry Practices and
Cognitive Processes

Edited by Maarit Koponen, Brian Mossop,

Isabelle S. Robert and Giovanna Scocchera
First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 selection and editorial matter, Maarit Koponen, Brian Mossop,
Isabelle S. Robert and Giovanna Scocchera; individual chapters, the
contributors
The right of Maarit Koponen, Brian Mossop, Isabelle S. Robert and
Giovanna Scocchera to be identifed as the authors of the editorial material,
and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Koponen, Maarit, editor. | Mossop, Brian, editor. | Robert,
Isabelle, 1972– editor. | Scocchera, Giovanna, editor.
Title: Translation revision and post-editing : industry practices and cognitive
processes / edited by Maarit Koponen, Brian Mossop, Isabelle S. Robert,
and Giovanna Scocchera.
Description: London ; New York : Rutledge, 2020. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifers: LCCN 2020020054 | ISBN 9781138549708 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138549715 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003096962 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Editing. | Translating and interpreting.
Classifcation: LCC PN162 .T73 2020 | DDC 418/.02—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020054
ISBN: 978-1-138-54970-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-54971-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-09696-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
CONTENTS

List of contributors vii

Introduction 1

PART I
Post-editing versus revision 19

1 Preferential changes in revision and post-editing 21

Jean Nitzke and Anne-Kathrin Gros

2 Diferentiating editing, post-editing and revision 35

Félix do Carmo and Joss Moorkens

3 Post-editing human translations and revising machine

translations: impact on efciency and quality 50
Joke Daems and Lieve Macken

PART II
Non-professional revision and post-editing 71

4 Non-professional editing in the workplace: examples from

the Canadian context 73
Matthieu LeBlanc
vi Contents

5 When the post-editor is not a translator: can machine

translation be post-edited by academics to prepare their
publications in English? 89
Carla Parra Escartín and Marie-Josée Goulet

PART III
Professional revision in various contexts 107

6 Revision and quality standards: do translation service

providers follow recommendations in practice? 109
Madeleine Schnierer

7 From language check to creative editing: exploring variation

in the revision stage of the LSP workfow 131
Annamari Korhonen

8 Exploring a two-way street: revisers’ and translators’ attitudes

and expectations about each other in biomedical translation 148
Susana Valdez and Sonia Vandepitte

9 Another look at revision in literary translation 165

Ilse Feinauer and Amanda Lourens

PART IV
Training 185

10 Revision and post-editing competences in translator education 187

Kalle Konttinen, Leena Salmi and Maarit Koponen

11 Improving revision quality in translator training

with translationQ 203
Gys-Walt van Egdom

12 The MT post-editing skill set: course descriptions

and educators’ thoughts 226
Clara Ginovart Cid and Carme Colominas Ventura

Bibliography 247
Index 273
CONTRIBUTORS

Félix do Carmo is a Senior Lecturer in translation and natural language processing

at the University of Surrey. After completing his PhD at the University of Porto,
where he was a guest Lecturer, he worked as a post-doctoral researcher at Dublin
City University. For more than 20 years, he was a translator and a translation
company owner in Portugal.

Clara Ginovart Cid is a PhD student in the framework of Doctorats Industrials

(Generalitat de Catalunya) in the Department of Translation and Language Sciences,
Pompeu Fabra University, Spain. She is also a CAT and MT Tool Consultant
at Datawords, France. Her main research interests are machine translation post-
editing, and translation and terminology technologies and processes.

Joke Daems is a postdoctoral research assistant at Ghent University. As a member

of the Language and Translation Technology Team, she conducts research in the
feld of machine translation and human-computer interaction.

Carla Parra Escartín, PhD in computational linguistics, is Global Program

Manager at Iconic Translation Machines. She was previously a Marie Skłodowska-
Curie Fellow in the ADAPT Research Centre at Dublin City University, Ireland.
Her research focuses on human factors in machine translation and associated
technologies, translation quality frameworks and multiword expressions. She has
also been involved in ethics research applied to translation and machine translation.

Ilse Feinauer is Professor at the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, where she
teaches Translation Studies and Afrikaans linguistics. Her research focus is socio-
cognitive Translation Studies: processes and networks. She is a founding member and
board member of the Association for Translation Studies in Africa, and a member of
the executive board of the European Society for Translation Studies.
viii Contributors

Marie-Josée Goulet, PhD in linguistics, is an Associate Professor in the

Department of Education at the Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada,
where she teaches technical and scientifc writing. In addition to her interest
in the use of machine translation for scientifc writing in English as a second
language, she conducts research in the feld of digital university pedagogy, in
particular mediated feedback.

Anne-Kathrin Gros is a PhD student, research assistant and Lecturer at the Center
for Translation and Cognition, University of Mainz/Germersheim, Germany. Her
research interests include cognitive Translation Studies, translation process research
and psycholinguistics.

Kalle Konttinen is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of German, University

of Turku, Finland. His research interests include translation pedagogy, translation
workfows and translation quality assessment. His teaching focuses on practical
translation (German-Finnish), translation technology and translation company
simulation.

Annamari Korhonen has worked as an in-house translator since 1999, most of

that time at one of Finland’s largest language service providers. She holds an MA
in English language and is currently working on her PhD in Translation Studies
at Tampere University, focusing on translation production processes and editing of
translations.

Matthieu LeBlanc is Professor of Translation in the Department of Translation and

Modern Languages and Associate Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences
at the Université de Moncton, Canada. His research felds include Translation
Studies and sociolinguistics. He has conducted research on language technologies,
translators’ social and professional status and the evolution of the translation
profession.

Amanda Lourens is a Lecturer in the Postgraduate Translation Programmes of the

Department of Afrikaans and Dutch at Stellenbosch University (South Africa).
For her 1997 PhD, she studied the canonisation of women’s literature in the
Afrikaans literary system. Her research is focused on editing procedures, and she
has undertaken a few projects on revision in literary translation in collaboration
with Ilse Feinauer.

Lieve Macken is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Translation, Interpreting

and Communication at Ghent University, Belgium. Her research focuses on the
impact of translation technology and machine translation on the process and
product of translation. She is the operational head of the language technology
section of the department, where she also teaches translation technology, machine
translation and localization.
 Contributors ix

Joss Moorkens is a Lecturer in the School of Applied Language and Intercultural

Studies at Dublin City University, Ireland. He has authored over 50 articles and
chapters on translation technology, machine translation post-editing, translation
evaluation, translator precarity and ethics in translation. He has co-edited a number
of books and special issues, and is general co-editor of the journal Translation Spaces.

Jean Nitzke is a postdoc and instructor at the Center for Translation and Cognition,
University of Mainz, Germany. In her PhD studies, she focused on post-editing,
which she also teaches to students, trainers and professional translators. Other
research interests include translation process research, translation tools and
technologies as well as cognitive aspects of translation.

Leena Salmi is a Senior Lecturer in French at the University of Turku, Finland. Her
research interests include post-editing, translation quality assessment, information-
seeking as part of translator work and themes related to the production of legally
valid translations. Her teaching focuses on practical translation (French-Finnish),
translation technology, post-editing and translation company simulation, as well as
supervision of MA and PhD theses.

Madeleine Schnierer teaches translation, revision and German language and

culture in the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting, University of Geneva,
Switzerland, and leads revision workshops for professional translators. She has
a PhD in Translation Studies and is the author of Qualitätssicherung—Die Praxis
der Übersetzungsrevision im Zusammenhang mit EN 15038 und ISO 17100, about
revision in relation to standards for translation service providers.

Susana Valdez is an Assistant Professor of Translation Studies at the Centre for

Linguistics, Leiden University, Netherlands. Her 2019 doctoral thesis was on
translation norms and expectations in biomedical translation. She is currently
continuing her research on translators’ decision-making processes, and she is particularly
interested in how these are infuenced by the expectations of the language community.

Gys-Walt van Egdom holds a PhD in linguistics and literary studies and a master’s
degree in Translation Studies. He lectures on translation and Translation Studies
at Utrecht University, the Netherlands. His research interests include translation
didactics, translation evaluation, translation ethics, translation processes and human-
computer interaction.

Sonia Vandepitte is a full Professor at Ghent University, Belgium, and Director

of the Master of Translation programme. She teaches Translation Studies, English-
Dutch and Dutch-English translation and has experience coaching student translation
companies. Publication topics include translation problem-solving, quality and
competences, post-editing and translation training in collaborative learning contexts
such as the International Network of Simulated Translation Bureaus.
x Contributors

Carme Colominas Ventura is a Lecturer in German and translation technology in

the Department of Translation and Language Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University,
Spain, where she teaches undergraduate courses in German-Spanish translation,
computer aided translation and natural language processing and graduate courses
in translation technology. Her main research interests are machine aided translation,
machine translation and automatic text classifcation.
INTRODUCTION

Revision of translations is an old activity in Europe and probably dates back to

Saint Jerome, who was commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise existing ver-
sions of the Bible in the late 4th century. However, in the book publishing industry
and in translation departments and agencies, translation revision became common
practice only in the course of the 20th century. The earliest publications were prac-
tical and pedagogical: in-house manuals for institutional revisers and an article on
evaluating the work of such revisers (Arthern 1983); a textbook for revision courses
at Canadian translation schools (Horguelin 1978) and a book chapter on the role
of such courses (Thaon 1984); advice on self-revision for professional translators
(Mossop 1982). Then came the early work by translation researchers: a dissertation
(Brunette 1995, published 1997) and a study of literary self-revision (Toury 1995).
In large institutions such as the UN or the EU, the function of reviser has been
institutionalized for a few decades now, but in translation agencies, this develop-
ment is probably more recent and has been encouraged by the publication of the
European standard for Translation Services EN 15038 (European Committee for
Standardization 2006a) and its successor, ISO 17100 (International Organization
for Standardization 2015a). According to these standards, revision is compulsory,
has to be carried out by somebody other than the translator and consists of a “bilin-
gual examination of target language content against source language content for its
suitability for the agreed purpose” (International Organization for Standardization
2015a: 2).
Although clear defnitions of revision in that particular sense can be found in
the literature, diferent terms continue to circulate to refer to the same activity and
a consistent (multilingual) revision terminology within Translation Studies (TS) is
still lacking. Briefy, translation revision can be defned as the act of examining a
translation and making those changes which are necessary to achieve compliance
with recognized linguistic and functional criteria. The term ‘revision’ is sometimes
2 Introduction

restricted to the examination by one translator of another translator’s work (other-

revision), but it is also used to denote self-revision, where translators check their
own work. Revision involves checking the translation against the source text
whether with occasional glances at the source (‘unilingual revision’) or regular
checking (‘comparative revision’). It is therefore distinct from proofreading or edit-
ing, both of which involve work on a text in one language only. Technology is also
afecting the defnition and practice of revision. Ever since translation memories
came into widespread use, translators have had to assess and perhaps adjust word-
ings recycled from a memory, and what is that if not revision?
As for post-editing1 of machine-translation outputs, the frst mentions appear in
the literature in the 1950s, around the same time as the frst proposals for machine
(or “mechanical”) translation (MT) systems (Garcia 2012: 294). Early adopters of MT
and post-editing workfows were large organizations such as the European Commis-
sion and the Pan-American Health Organization. As MT quality improved, frst with
the adoption of phrase-based statistical systems, and then in the 2010s with machine-
learning approaches using neural networks, post-editing became more widespread.
The publication of an international standard for post-editing (ISO 18587) in 2017
refects this increasing use. In 2014, van der Meer and Ruopp (2014: 46) even pre-
dicted that post-editing would become “the primary production process in translation”
by 2020. However, a Language Industry Survey published in 2019 indicates that less
than 20% of translation companies and around 10% of freelancers report using MT
frequently (ELIA et al. 2019). Post-editing has been used mainly in the context of
localization, although more recently studies have started to investigate post-editing of
literary texts or audiovisual material like subtitles, voice-overs and audio description.
In practice and in research, post-editing appears to be mostly carried out by bilingual
individuals utilizing both the source text and MT output. However, some research has
also explored the feasibility of monolingual post-editing, where the person perform-
ing the post-editing either does not understand the source language or otherwise does
not have access to the source text (Koponen and Salmi 2015).
Broadly, post-editing can be defned as editing and correcting machine-trans-
lation output, according to the International Standard ISO 17100 (term 2.2.4).
However, it is not always clear which practices are covered by the term. ISO 17100
limits its use with a note stating that the term is not applied when “a translator sees
and uses a suggestion from a machine-translation engine within a CAT (computer-
aided translation) tool”, although the reasoning for this is not clarifed. In contrast
to this limitation, some authors have used the term post-editing for correcting not
only MT output but also segments from translation memories (TM) (Silva 2014:
27; Bundgaard and Christensen 2019: 15). Other authors draw further distinctions
based on how the user interacts with the MT system. In what is sometimes called
‘traditional’ post-editing (Alves et al. 2016: 80), the MT system provides the trans-
lations as complete suggestions without any actual human-computer interaction.
In contrast, interactive MT systems operate more like an autocompletion mode,
where the suggestion generated by the system changes based on edits made by the
user, which some authors do not consider post-editing as such.
 Introduction 3

While technology appears central to the practice of post-editing, an interesting

feature of revision is that there are very few machine aids specifc to this aspect
of translation work. No software can help the reviser detect unidiomatic word
combinations, language that is too formal or technical for the intended readership,
nonsense, defciencies in inter-sentence connections, or most errors in transfer
of meaning or in the focus structure of sentences. For the time being, revision
seems to remain largely an activity of human minds unassisted by machines (it is
even sometimes done on paper rather than on screen), while the drafting work of
translators is on the contrary increasingly machine-assisted. Post-editing, on the
other hand, is carried out mostly in CAT tools (see Moorkens and O’Brien 2017).
Machine translation and translation memories are also increasingly integrated
in the same tools in the form of ‘MT assisted TM’ (Bundgaard and Christensen
2019), and they are used in parallel during a given translation project. As more
translators are fnding themselves checking not only human translation but also
machine outputs, traditional boundaries between the functions of translators, revis-
ers and post-editors are starting to blur, as are boundaries between professionals and
non-professionals.

1. Research into revision and post-editing—the state

of the art
Research interest in revision and post-editing has been gaining momentum in recent
years, with a growing number of publications. Some are theoretical/conceptual
(often personal refections about specifc aspects of revision or post-editing) and are based
on a literature search or rely on argumentation. Others are empirical, involving one or
more of the following: studies of the revision product, process, participants or environ-
ment (where the study is carried out). Empirical studies are based on experiments or
observations and draw on qualitative and/or quantitative methods. Product-based meth-
odologies include error analyses, quality assessment and corpus approaches, and, in the
case of post-editing, automatic metrics that compare the MT output and its post-edited
version and calculate the edit rate, or the number and type of changes (see Snover et al.
2006). Process-based methods generally involve the use of keylogging software, which
records the user’s keystrokes and mouse clicks; eyetracking, where specialized cameras
are used to collect data about the user’s gaze movements and fxations, or introspective
methods like think-aloud protocols, where the participants verbalize their thoughts
during the task or retrospectively. Participant-oriented methods include observation,
interviews and surveys. Studies often combine product and process methods, making it
sometimes difcult to clearly delineate product-oriented and process-oriented studies.
Similarly, product or process studies may also involve participant-oriented methods, and
participant-oriented studies may also involve the analysis of product and process data.
Contexts for studies can be professional environments like language service provid-
ers (companies and freelancers) or in-house translation departments, translator training
environments, or contexts where ‘non-professionals’ or ‘lay people’ (not working in a
translation profession) carry out revision or post-editing.
4 Introduction

2. Theoretical publications on revision

Theoretical publications are of three kinds. First, there are overviews of the feld. The
most complete is Robert (2018), in French, which combines a review of the literature
(on which sections 1 to 3 of this introduction are based) with an analysis of biblio-
metric data on revision. Robert draws on Künzli’s (2014) work in German, the most
complete at the time, where the author looked at the concept of revision, the state
of research and desiderata for future work. An interesting overview with a focus on
revision in literary translation is also provided in Scocchera (2017a). A few older over-
views are presented by Mossop (2007a, 2011), and by Garcia (2008) on revising for
localization. In this frst group of publications, we also fnd an enlightening theoretical
refection on the boundaries between translation, revision and post-editing (Jakobsen
2019). The author explains that in much professional translation where technologies
are ubiquitous, “there is less writing and less translation from scratch, than editing and
post-editing of text suggested by TM/MT systems” (76), thus making the distinction
between the three activities increasingly blurred, but still useful.
Second, there are articles on specifc aspects of revision, such as revision ter-
minology (Scocchera 2013; Brunette 2000), key concepts for revision (Tardaguila
2009), revision parameters (Lee 2006), methodological aspects of revision and revi-
sion as a method of quality assurance (Parra-Galiano 2016), risk management when
deciding whether to revise (Martin 2007), the place of revision in the translation
process, the importance of mentoring and of didactic revision in training future
translators (Rochard 2004), revisers as guardians of translation rather than censors
(Brunette 2002), interventions by publishers’ editors that make revised translations
worse (Pergnier 1990), briefs for revisers (Allman 2007) and the need to incor-
porate unilingual and bilingual revision into translation quality assessment models
(Mellinger 2018). Nord (2018) provides some thoughts on revision based on her
experience as a professional reviser, looking at revision criteria, procedures, prin-
ciples and competence, the notion of error, and relationships among those involved
in revision. She also explains how the manufacturing principle of ‘quality at the
source’ (the notion that quality must be measured at every step of a production
process, not just at the end) could be applied to translation revision.
A third type of theoretical publication concerns revision teaching and the
acquisition of revision competence. Rodriguez (2012) describes a constructivist
approach to revision teaching. Brunette (1998) looks at revision as a translator
training exercise, while Brunette (2003) considers the role of the linguistic code
in teaching revision, with a focus on interference from the source language. Parra-
Galiano (2001) makes the case that learning to revise will create self-confdence
and thus prepare translators for professional life, while Parra-Galiano (2015) looks
at the causes of defective revision. Mossop (1992) describes three possible goals
of a revision course. Chakhachiro (2005) sets out a list of competences, which is
expanded upon in Scocchera (2017a). Mendoza Garcia and Ponce Marquez (2013)
propose instruction in revision as a key to developing other aspects of translation
competence. Robert et al. (2017a) provide a model of revision competence.
 Introduction 5

3. Empirical studies of revision

Studies of the product

Studies that focus on the revised translation as a product are recent and still fairly
rare. They generally involve analysis of a corpus, sometimes limited in scope and
thus more like case studies. In a few cases, the product analysis is based on data
collected through an experiment. Bisiada (2018) draws on a parallel corpus of
English source texts (business articles), their unrevised German translations and the
published (revised) German, in order to examine revisers’ interventions, in par-
ticular with regard to nominalizations. He fnds that revisers have a signifcant and
systematic impact on translations, and that what some people see as literal transla-
tions are not necessarily the result of the translator’s work, but rather the reviser’s.
McDonough (2015) analyses a corpus of translations of Wikipedia entries, and the
revisions made to these translations, in order to discover the frequency of transfer
problems on the one hand and language-and-style problems on the other, as well
as the revisers’ solutions. She fnds that both types of problem are nearly always
present, that half of them remain typically undetected by the revisers, and that
language-and-style problems are revised more frequently than transfer problems.
Popič (2014) analyses a DIY corpus of translated and revised (popular) scientifc
texts to check application of the European standard EN 15038 in Slovenia. She
fnds that revision is very often unilingual rather than comparative and that the
reviser has not necessarily been trained as a translator.
Some corpora consist of literary texts. Solum (2018) analyses a corpus of novels
translated from English to Norwegian in order to identify which of the revisers’
proposed changes are accepted by the translators. While revisers are hardly ever
mentioned in the acknowledgements of the published books, they are found to have
a defnite infuence on those parts of the translations where they suggest changes.
The translators accept a considerable number of the revisers’ suggestions, and Nor-
wegian literary translators expect their publishers to provide a high standard of
revision work. Robin (2014) analyses a corpus of fction translated from English to
Hungarian and the revised versions in order to discover what happens to ‘translation
universals’ during the revision phase. She fnds that while explicitation and implici-
tation are usually deemed to be the work of translators, they can be the result of
revision or editing strategies (2019). She also suggests (Robin 2018) a typology of
reviser interventions based on linguistic and translational rules, norms and strategies.
As already mentioned, some product studies are based on a restricted corpus or
on the analysis of a small number of texts, sometimes one. Magris (1999) analyses
the revised translation of a nursing handbook in order to investigate the reviser’s
task defnition and tolerance for the translator’s choices. Rega (1999) analyses the
revisions of three German-to-Italian translations, giving examples of subjective
changes, necessary stylistic changes and necessary changes made by a subject-
matter expert. She fnds numerous changes of the second type and says that style
should receive more attention in university translation courses. Notaristefano
6 Introduction

(2010) analyses the revised translation of a macroeconomics textbook from English

to Italian, classifes and quantifes the changes, and presents an ideal professional
profle for a reviser. Lemaire (2018) refects on her own revision of a corpus of
museum and exhibition panels. She suggests a redefnition of the multilingual
editorial process of these panels, and calls for changes in mentality and working
conditions to ensure editorial quality.
Finally, some researchers set up an experiment to collect data that they analyse
mainly from a product point of view. This is the case of Van Rensburg (2012), who
sought to determine the impact of the work done by various revisers on the qual-
ity of the draft translation, and also to compare the impact with the time spent on
revision in order to determine the cost-efectiveness of the procedure. Four revisers
revised two English-to-Afrikaans translations: an unspecialized text translated by a
translation student and a specialized text translated by an experienced professional
translator. For each text, three evaluators rated the unrevised translation and the
four revised translations. Van Rensburg found that revision had less impact on the
quality of the translation produced by the professional, leading to the question of
whether it is necessary to revise the work of experienced translators. The results
also showed that there is not necessarily a positive correlation between revision
quality and revision experience. More recently, Pontrandolfo (2017) investigated
the revision of one legal translation by four diferent types of professionals (legal
linguists, professional translators with a specialization in legal translation, profes-
sional translators without that specialization, and lawyers without translation and/
or revision experience) to determine whether translation competence sufces
to revise complex legal translations and what the importance of subject-matter
knowledge is. Although she acknowledges that her research is a case study and
that generalizations are difcult to make, her hypothesis is confrmed: professional
translators with experience in translation and revision but without training in legal
translation do not seem to be well prepared to revise a complex legal translation.

Studies of revision competence and teaching

The frst study of revision competence (Lorenzo 2002) uses keystroke logging to
compare students’ self-revision and other-revision competence when working with
translations into their second language. She fnds that the students were not success-
ful because they lacked strategies for detecting and evaluating errors, and that they
were better at revising others than revising themselves. The second study, by Künzli
(2006b), analyses think-aloud protocols from ten professional revisers with a view
to discovering the components of revision competence and formulating an outline
for a revision course. He suggests a module focused on strategic, interpersonal
and instrumental competences. Next comes a longitudinal study (Hansen 2009)
carried out in Denmark from 2003 to 2007 with 71 students and 28 profession-
als. Its purpose was to compare translation competence with revision competence
based on both product and process analyses using keystroke logging, questionnaires
and interviews. One of the main fndings was that experienced translators are not
 Introduction 7

necessarily good revisers, and vice versa; revision competence requires additional
aptitudes and attitudes.
More recently, a group of researchers at the University of Antwerp sought to
validate their model of revision competence (Robert et al. 2018). The initial results
appeared in three publications (Rigouts Terryn et al. 2017; Robert et al. 2017b;
Robert et al. 2018). The researchers conducted an experiment with 21 students
divided into an experimental group, who had taken a module on revision, and a
control group, who had no revision training. The students frst performed a set of
revision tasks, recorded with keystroke logging, and then flled out an online ques-
tionnaire. One fnding was that the experimental group used the same search tools
as the control group, but more frequently; they performed more searches in order
to be able to justify their changes, and their searches were more meticulous. The
experimental group was also more tolerant of wording choices and made fewer
pointless changes. However the researchers were not able to demonstrate that the
students in the experimental group revised better, in the sense of making more
necessary changes (an indicator of strategic competence). Their explanation was
that the revision training had been brief and that a pilot study has inherent limita-
tions (such as the number of participants).
The literature also includes three experimental studies of revision teaching. In the
frst (Shreve et al. 2014), the researchers compare the efcacy of screen recording
data with that of Integrated Problem and Decision Reporting (Gile 2004) in assisting
other-revision by 12 students. They found that the students performed better when
they had access to screen recording data on the translation process. The second study
(Robert and Brunette 2016) looks at the relationship between think-aloud, revi-
sion quality and ability to detect errors with 16 professional revisers, to see whether
think-aloud would help learners. The researchers found that the more the revis-
ers verbalized detailed diagnoses of error, the better their detection and correction
work, but the longer they took to complete the task. Applying this to pedagogy, the
researchers concluded that it might be useful to ask revision students to think aloud
when revising at home. Finally, drawing from previous research on revision pedagogy
and didactics (Scocchera 2014) and based on a multi-component view of revision
competence (2017a), the third study (Scocchera 2019) investigates the general atti-
tudes towards revision and the background skills of revision students taking part in a
short-term course, as well as their progress in the acquisition of revision competence.
By comparing the students’ output on diferent revision assignments, the study also
tests the validity and efcacy of the teaching contents and methods and provides
insights and practical suggestions for revision-specifc education and training based
on quantitative and qualitative data obtained through an end-of-study questionnaire.

Relationship between the process and the quality of the product

Among the many publications about the relationship between the revision process
and the quality of the product, a set of experimental studies focus on the revision
procedure and/or revision instructions. For example, in an experimental study
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