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Copyright © Blackwell Publishers Ltd

First published 2000

Reprinted 200 I

Blackwell Publishers Inc.

350 Main Street
Malden , Massachusetts 0214 8
USA

Blackwell Publishers Ltd

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Oxford OX4 IJF
UK

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes
of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the publisher.

Except in the United States of America, this book is sold subject to the condition
that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out,
or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding
or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition
including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A companion to the philosophy of science I edited by W.H. Newton-Smith.

p. em.- (Blackwell companions to philosophy; 1 8)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-631-170243 (hb: alk. paper)
I. Science-Philosophy. I. Newton-Smith, W. II. Series.
Ql75.3.C65 2000
500--dc21 99-047598

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Typeset in I 0 on 12� pt Photina

By Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong
Printed in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall

This book is printed on acid-free paper

 Contents

List of Contributors xi

Preface XV

List of I.ogical Symbols xvi

Introduction

1 Axiomatization 9
FR EDERI C K S l! P P E

2 Berkeley 12
M . H U GH ES

3 Biology 16
P A U L THOM PSO N

4 Bohr 26
D U GA LD M URDOCH

5 Causation 31
P A U L H U M PHR E Y S

6 Cognitive Approaches to Science 41

R O N A L D N . G IERE

7 Computing 44
LESL I E B U R KHO LDER

8 Confirmation, Paradoxes of 53
J . D . TROUT

9 Convention, Role of 56
L A WR E N C E S K LAR

10 Craig's Theorem 65
FREDER I CK S l! P P E

v
CONTENTS

11 Darwin 68
SAM I R OKASHA

12 Definitions 76
FREDER I C K S li P P E

13 Descartes 79
TOM SORELL

14 Discovery 85
THOMAS N I CK L E S

15 Dispositions and Powers 97

ROM H A R R E

16 Einstein 1 02
C H R I STOPH E R RAY

17 Evidence and Confirmation 1 08

COLI N HOWSON

18 Experiment 1 17
DAV I D C . GOOD I N G

19 Explanation 1 27
W. H . NEWTON - S M I T H

20 Feminist Accounts of Science 1 34

KATHLEEN O K R li H L I K

21 Feyerabend 1 43
JOHN PRESTON

22 Galileo 1 49
ROBERT E . BUTTS

23 History, Role in the Philosophy of Science ] 54

BRENDAN LARVOR

24 Holism 1 62
CH RISTOP H E R HOO K W A Y

25 Hume 1 65
W. H . N EWTON-S M I T H

26 Idealization ] 69
YEMIMA BEN-ME N A H E M

vi
 CO N T E N T S

27 Incommensurability 1 72
M l iii A M M A D A I .l K H A LI IJ I

28 Induction and the (Jniformity of Nature I R1

C O L I N H OW SO N

29 Inference to the Best Explanation 1 84

P E T E R L I PT O N

30 Judgment, Role in Science 194

H A R O L D I . BRO W N

31 Kuhn 203
R I CH A R D RORTY

32 Lakatos 207
THO M A S N I C K L E S

33 Laws o f Nature 213

R O M H A RRic

34 Leibniz 224
W I L L I A M S E A G ER

35 Locke 229
G . A . J . ROG E RS

36 Logical Empiricism 2 33
WESLEY C . SALMON

37 (,ogical Positivism 24 3
CH H I S TO PH E R R A Y

38 Mach 2 52
G E H EO N WOLTERS

39 Mathematics, Role in Science 257

J A M E S HOBERT BROW N

40 Measurement 265
j . D . TR O U T

41 Metaphor in Science 277

E L EO N OR A MO N Tli S C II I

42 Metaphysics, Role in Science 2R3

W I L LI A M S E AC E H

vii
CON TE NTS

43 Mill 29 3
UEOF FREY Sl'ARRE

44 Models and Analogies 299

M ARY H ES S E

45 Naturalism 30H
RON A LD N . U I ER E

46 Natural Kinds 31 I
JOHN D li PRlo

47 Newton 320
R I CHARD S . W EST F A L L

48 Observation and Theory 325

PETER A CH I N STE I N

49 Peirce n5
CHERY L M I S A K

50 Physicalism 340
W I L L I A M S E AU ER

51 Popper 343
JOH N W A T K I N S

52 Pragmatic Factors in Theory Acceptance 349

JOH N WORR A Ll.

53 Probability 3 5H
PH I L I P P ER C I V A L

54 Qualities, Primary and Secondary 3 73

C. A . ) . ROU ERS

55 Quantum Mechanics 3 76
R I CH A R D H E A L EY

56 Quine �H 5
LARS BERU STRii M

57 Ramsey Sentences �90

FR E D ER I C K Slll' P E

58 Realism and Instrumentalism 3 93

J ARR ETT L E P L I N

viii
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 CONTENTS

59 Reductionism 402
J O H N DliPR E

60 Relativism 40 5
J A MES W . MCALL I ST E R

61 Russell 408
P A U L J. H A G E R

62 Scientific Change 413

DUDLEY S H A P E R E

63 Scientific Methodology 42 3
G A R Y C U TT I N G

64 Simplicity 433
E L L I OTT SOBER

65 Social Factors in Science 442

J A MES ROBERT BROWN

66 Social Science, Philosophy of 451

A LEX R O S E N B E R G

67 Space, Time, and Relativity 461

LAW R E N CE S K L A R

68 Statistical Explanation 4 70
C H R I ST O P H E R READ H I TC H COCK A N D WESLEY C . SALMON

69 Supervenience and Determination 480

W I L L I A M SEAGER

70 Technology, Philosophy of 48 3
M A R Y T I LES

71 Teleological Explanation 492

A N DREW WOODF I EL D

72 Theoretical Terms: Meaning and Reference 49 5

P H I LI P P E R C I V A L

73 Theories 51 5
RO N A LD N . G I E R E

74 Theory Identity 525

F R EDE R I CK SUPPE

ix
 C O N T ENTS

75 Thought Experiments '>2K

JAMES ROBERT BROW!'\

76 Underdetermination of Theory by Data 5 32

W. H. NEWTON-S M I TH

77 Llnification of Theories 5 37
J A MES W . M C A L LI STER

78 The Llnity of Science '>40

C . A . HOOKER

79 Values i n Science 5 50
E R N A N MCM U L L I N

80 Verisimilitude 561
C H R I S BR I N K

81 Whewell 5 64
JOliN WETTERST E N

Index SoX

X
 List of Contributors

Peter Achinstein is Professor of London and Senior Research Fellow in

Philosophy at Johns Hopkins University, the Department of Sociology at the Uni­
Baltimore. versity of Exeter.

Yemima Ben-Menahem is in the Ronald N. Giere is Professor of Phi­

faculty of Humanities at the Hebrew losophy at the M innesota Center for Phi­
U niversity of Jerusalem. losophy of Science at the University of
Minnesota.
Lars Bergstrom is Professor of Prac­
tical Philosophy and Head of the De­ David Gooding is Professor of History
partment of Philosophy at Stockholm and Philosophy of Science and Director
University. of the Science Studies Centre at the Uni­
versity of Bath.
Chris Brink is Professor of Mathemat­
ics and Pro Vice-Chancellor ( Research) Gary Gutting is Professor of Philosophy
at the University of Wollongong, Aus­ at the University of Notre Dame in
tralia, and Fellow of the Royal Society of Indiana.
South Africa.
Paul Hager is Associate Professor of Edu­
Harold I. Brown is Professor of Phi­
cation at the University of Technology in
losophy at the University of Northern
Sydney, Australia.
Illinois at De Kalb.

Rom Harre is Emeritus Fellow of

James R. Brown is Professor of Phi­
losophy at the U niversity of Toronto. Linacre College of the University of
Oxford and Professor of Psychology at
Leslie Burkholder is Professor of
Georgetown U niversity.
Philosophy at the University of British
Columbia in Vancouver. Richard A. Healey is Professor of
Philosophy and Director of Graduate
Robert E. Butts (died 1 9 9 7) was Pro­ Studies in the Department of Philosophy
fessor of Philosophy at the University of at the University of Arizona.
Western Ontario.
Mary Hesse is Emeritus Professor of
John Dupre is Professor of Philosophy History and Ph ilosophy of Science at
at Birkbeck College of the University of the University of Cambridge.

xi
L I ST OF CONTRI BIJTORS

Christopher R. Hitchcock is Associate at the University of Notre Dame in

Professor of Philosophy at the Division Indian a .
of the Humanities and Social Sciences of
the California I nstitute of Technology in Cheryl Misak i s Professor o f Philoso­
Pasadena. phy at the U niversity of Toronto.

Cliff Hooker is Professor of Philosophy Eleonora Montuschi is in the Depart­

at the Un iversity of Newcastle in New ment of Philosophy at the London School
South Wales. Australia. of Economics.

Christopher Hookway is Professor of Dugald Murdoch is a member of the

Philosophy at the University of Sheffield. Department of Philosophy at the Uni­
versity of Stockholm .
Colin Howson is Reader in Philosophy
at the London School of Economics. William H . Newton-Smith i s Fairfax
Fellow and Tutor in Philosophy at Balliol
Martin Hughes is in the Department of
College. University of Oxford.
Philosophy at the University of Durham.
Thomas Nickles is Professor of Phi­
Paul Humphreys is Professor of Phi­
losophy at the University of Nevada in
losophy in the Corcoran Department of
Reno.
Philosophy at the Un iversity of Virgin ia.
Samir Okasha is the j acobsen Research
Muhammad Ali Khalidi is Assist ant
Fellow in Philosophy at the London
Professor and Chair of the Department
School of Economics.
of Philosophy at the American Univer­
sity of Beirut.
Kathleen Okruhlik is Associate
Professor of Philosophy and Dean of the
Brendan Larvor is Lecturer in Philoso­
Faculty of Arts at the University of West­
phy in the Department of llumanities
ern Ontario.
at the University of Hertfordshire.

Philip Percival is a member of the

Jarrett Leplin is Professor of Philoso­
phy at the University of Chicago. Faculty of Philosophy at the U n iversity
of Glasgow.
Peter Lipton is Professor and Head of
the Department of History and Philoso­ John Preston is Senior Lecturer in the
phy of Science at the Un iversity of Department of Philosophy at the Univer­
Cambridge. sity of Reading.

James W. McAllister is a member of Christopher Ray is Academic Senior

the Faculty of Philosophy at the Univer­ Master at King's College School .
sity of Leiden . London.

Ernan McMullin is john Cardinal John Rogers is Professor of Philosophy

O'Hara Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at the University of Keele.

xii
 I. I ST OF C O N TIUB!I T O R S

Richard Rorty is University Professor Frederick Suppe is Professor of Phi­

of Humanities at the U niversity of losophy and Chair of the History and
Virginia. Philosophy of Science Program at the
University of M aryland.
Alex Rosenberg is Professor of Phi­
losophy at the University of Georgia. Paul Thompson is Professor of Philo­
sophy and Principal of the University of
Wesley C. Salmon is University Professor Toronto at Scarborough.
of Philosophy. Professor of History and
Philosophy of Science. and Fellow of the Mary Tiles is Professor of Philosophy
Center for Philosophy of Science at the at the U niversity of Hawaii at Manoa.
University of Pittsburgh. and President Honolulu.
of the International Union of History and
Philosophy of Science. Division of Logic, J . D . Trout is Associate Professor of
Methodology. and Philosophy of Science. Philosophy and Adjunct Associate Pro­
fessor of the Parmly Hearing Institute at
Geoffrey Scarre is in the Department of Loyola U niversity in Chicago.
Philosophy at the University of Durham.
John Watkins (died 1 9 99) was Profes­
sor of Philosophy at the London School
William Seager is Professor of Phi­
of Economics.
losophy at Scarborough College in the
U niversity of Toronto.
Richard S. Westfall (died 1996) was
Professor of History and Philosophy
Dudley Shapere is Z. Smith Reynolds
of Science at . Indiana U niversity in
Professor of Ph ilosophy and History of
Bloomington.
Science at Wake Forest University in
Winston-Salem, N orth Carolina. John Wettersten is in the Facu lty of
Social Sciences of Heuchelheim Univer­
Lawrence Sklar is Professor of Phi­ sity. Germany.
losophy at the University of M ichigan.
Gereon Wolters is Professor of Philoso­
Elliott Sober is Hans Reichenbach Pro­ phy at the U niversity of Konstanz.
fessor of Philosophy and Vilas Research
Professor in the Department of Philoso­ Andrew Woodfield is in the Depart­
phy at the U niversity of Wisconsin. ment of Philosophy, Centre for Theories
Madison. of Language and Learn ing. at the U ni­
versity of Bristol.
Tom Sorell is Professor in the Depart­
ment of Philosophy at the University of John Worrall is Professor of Philosophy
Essex. at the London School of Economics.

xiii
 Preface

My greatest debt of gratitude is to the patient contributors to this volume. I have been
the barnacle on their ship of progress. I hope our readers will agree that this collection
has been worth the wait.
In particular I want to thank for their able assistance Katie J amieson , who launched
the project. and Beata Ekert, who saw it through. l am also grateful to a series of editors
at Blackwell Publishers. With the passage of time they have become too numerous to
mention. I would single out the present editor, Beth Remmes, without whose gentle
insistence nothing would have come from something. For help with the proofs I am
gratefu l to J ames Driscoll.
There are major figures in the history of the philosophy of science who regrettably
do not have entries. And there are significant topics that are not treated. It seemed
better to advance with less than perfect coverage than to delay still further. I hope that
the reader will regard this as a companion. And, like a good companion in life, one will
enjoy it for what it provides and not regret what it does not have.
The volume is dedicated to my wife, the j ournalist Nancy Durham. The pleasure of
her support. love, and companionship is greater than could be conceived if it were not
for the fact that it is actual. Thank you JA.

W. H.Newton-Smith
Cefnperfedd Uchaf. 1 7 September 1 9 9 9

XV
 Logical Symbols

ln this work the followin g logical n otation is used:

n egation "not"
1\ conjunction "and"
v inclusive disjunction "either- or- or both"
� material conditional truth functional " if- then -"
H material biconditional truth functional "if and only"
( :l x) existential quantifier "There is . . . "

(x) universal quantifier "For all . . .

"

xvi
 Introduction

W. H . N E W T O N - S M I T H

We thin k that science is special: its products - technological spin-offs - dominate our
lives. Sometimes it enriches our lives: sometimes it impoverishes them or even takes
them away. For better or for worse. no institution has had more impact on the charac­
ter of our existence this millennium than science. Penicillin. computers, atomic bombs
ma ke modern life modern life.
Science affects our lives profoundly in another way as well. These technological
devices derive from sophisticated theories, some rudimentary understanding of which
is the hal lmark of the educated person. The theories - evolution. quantum mechanics,
relativity, and so forth - tell us stories that are sometimes hard to believe or even to
underst and . But we do come to believe them. And in coming to believe them we form
radically dill"erent pictures from our ancestors of ourselves, of the world, and of our
place in it. The modern person is composed ultimately of subatomic particles with
properties that defy comprehension. We trace our origins back to inanimate matter
and live in a curved space-time created by a big bang. Nowhere is this hunger to know
the scientific picture of the world more manifested than in the remarkable current
demand for popular science writings. Stephen Hawking's A BritfHistoru of Time ( 1 9RR ) .
on the list o f best-selling books for well over a year. i s but one of many attempts to
paint the scientific world picture for the layperson.
We are so impressed with science that we give quite amazing credibility to any
claim that is successfully represented as being scientific. A mundane example was
provided by the Ben Johnson fiasco. Some years ago the entire Canadian population
was convulsed with delight the night on which j ohnson appeared to have won the
Olympic gold medal in the 100-meter sprin t. The Prime Minister declared him to be a
new model for youth and a symbol around which to build the Canadian identity. At a
press conference the next day it was revealed that a scientific test which was probably
understood by only a handful of Canadians had shown on the basis of data available
to only a couple of scientists that Johnson had been taking steroids. Notwithstanding
the nation 's desire to believe the contrary, within hours almost all of the 2 3 .000,000
Canadians had changed their minds and concluded that Johnson had cheated: such is
the power of science. No other institution in Western pluralistic societies has had such
power to engender belief except possibly organized religion and the Communist Party.
The Communist Party is finished. And while the influence of religion diminishes as
educational levels go up, that of science increases.
Of course science has its detractors. But even they acknowledge its power. Indeed,
o ccasionally science is attacked just because of its power. M ichael Dummett ( 1 9R I )
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