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6816tp.indd 2 3/3/08 1:44:21 PM
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 M Tavakoli
Harvard University, USA

R V Patel
University of Western Ontario, Canada

M Moallem
Simon Fraser University, Canada

A Aziminejad
University of Western Ontario, Canada

World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TA I P E I • CHENNAI

6816tp.indd 1 3/3/08 1:44:19 PM

 Published by
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Fig. 1.2 (a)–(d): Reproduced by permission of

(a) Sensable Technologies Inc., © Copyright SensAble Technologies, Inc.
(b) MPB Technologies
(c) Immersion Corporation, Copyright © 2007 Immersion Corporation. All rights reserved.
(d) Xitact SA

Fig. 2.6 (b): Reproduced by permission of IEEE (© 2002 IEEE)

HAPTICS FOR TELEOPERATED SURGICAL ROBOTIC SYSTEMS

New Frontiers in Robotics — Vol. 1
Copyright © 2008 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright
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photocopy is not required from the publisher.

ISBN-13 978-981-281-315-2
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Printed in Singapore.

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December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

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December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

Preface

Surgery traditionally involves making a large incision to access the part of a

patient’s body that requires attention. This approach is referred to as open
surgery. Minimally invasive surgery (MIS), also called endoscopic surgery,
is an alternative to open surgery in which an endoscope (camera) and long
instruments are inserted into the body cavity through small incisions about
1 cm across. Instead of looking directly at the area being treated, the
physician monitors the procedure via the endoscope.
Because of the small incision size, MIS significantly reduces trauma
to the body, post-operative pain and length of hospital stay compared to
open surgery. It may potentially benefit the health care system through
cost savings as well. For example, traditional gallbladder surgery requires a
six-day hospital stay and up to six weeks for a full recovery and leaves a six-
inch scar. However, if operated in a minimally invasive mode, gallbladder
patients usually leave the hospital the same or the next day and are fully
recovered after a week with the scar barely visible after a few months.
Apart from societal benefits from faster recovery, this leads to savings on
pain medications, nursing care and overhead costs in an expensive clinical
setting.
Despite these benefits, endoscopic surgery has some drawbacks such as
lack of dexterity and manipulation capability for the surgeon. Such prob-
lems can be overcome by using robots to assist surgeons during interven-
tions. A surgical robot (slave) in conjunction with a computer controlled
surgeon-robot interface (master), where a surgeon sits and performs the
procedure while watching the surgical field via a 2-D or 3-D imaging sys-
tem, can also make the surgeon less fatigued and the operations much more
precise. A major deficiency of the current master-slave robotic systems for
surgery is the lack of the sensation of touch, or haptic perception, for the

vii
December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

viii Haptics for Teleoperated Surgical Robotic Systems

surgeon. Haptic feedback has the potential to provide superior performance

and reliability in master-slave robot-assisted interventions.
Motivated by this application, we have been investigating various issues
associated with incorporating haptics in robot-assisted MIS. The results of
the research are summarized in this monograph. A number of the key re-
sults are applicable to haptics-based teleoperated systems in general. The
following is an outline of each chapter of the monograph and how the chap-
ters relate to each other:
Chapter 1 starts by describing interventions that can take advantage of
the benefits offered by robotics. Next, a classification of robotic tools and
manipulators, which may be used in various types of surgery or therapy
is provided. Then, to lay the ground for studying haptic interaction in
robot-assisted interventions, some of the available haptic devices and the
previous research on haptic surgical teleoperation are surveyed.
While Chapter 1 provides a broad overview of the types of surgeries and
therapies that can benefit from robotics, the types of robots that can assist
surgeons, and haptic interaction during robot-assisted surgery and therapy,
Chapters 2 and 3 focus on a specific intervention (MIS) and a specific class
of robotic systems (master-slave teleoperation systems) with the objective
of incorporating haptic feedback. Studies in Chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7 are
also done in the context of that specific intervention although they are not
necessarily limited to it.
Chapters 2 to 7 deal with devices and methods required for incorpo-
rating haptic interaction in master-slave robotic systems for minimally in-
vasive endoscopic interventions. In terms of devices, incorporating haptic
feedback into a robotic MIS system calls for a surgical end-effector that can
measure its interaction with tissue in the form of forces or torques, as well
as a force-reflective user interface. Chapters 2 and 3 discuss the design of
two such devices for an endoscopic surgery environment.
In Chapter 2, a novel robotic end-effector is described that meets the
requirements of endoscopic surgery and is sensorized for force/torque feed-
back. The endoscopic end-effector is capable of non-invasively measuring its
interaction with tissue in all degrees of freedom available during endoscopic
manipulation. It is also capable of remotely actuating a tip and measuring
its interaction with the environment without using any sensors on the jaws.
The sensorized end-effector can be used as the last arm of a surgical robot
to incorporate haptic feedback.
Chapter 3 discusses the design of a user interface that is capable of
providing force feedback in all the degrees of freedom available during en-
December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

Preface ix

doscopic surgery. Using the Jacobian matrix of the haptic interface and
its singular values, methods are proposed for the analysis and optimization
of the interface performance with regard to the accuracy of force feedback,
the range of applicable forces, and the accuracy of control.
It has been shown that fixed impedance-reflecting controllers cannot
preserve master-slave position tracking when the environment impedance
changes. In Chapter 4, a neural network is used to implement adaptive in-
verse dynamics control of a PHANToM haptic device, which is commonly
used in haptics-based master-slave teleoperation research. Experimental
results show that the neural network controller successfully represents the
inverse dynamics of the PHANToM and can adapt to changes in the dy-
namics to maintain master-slave tracking.
In Chapter 5, the force-reflective user interface of Chapter 3 is used with
the sensorized surgical instrument of Chapter 2 to form a master-slave test-
bed for studying haptic interaction in an endoscopic surgery environment.
For experiments involving a single degree-of-freedom surgical task on soft
tissue (palpation), first the dynamics of the master and the slave including
friction effects are modeled and the model parameters are identified (Ap-
pendix D). Since the master is not equipped with a force/torque sensor,
a state observer based on the identified dynamical model of the master is
utilized to estimate the force exerted by the operator’s hand. In this chap-
ter, the added benefits of using force sensors that measure hand/master
and slave/environment interactions and utilizing local feedback loops on
teleoperation transparency are investigated. We compare two-channel and
the four-channel bilateral control systems in terms of stability and trans-
parency, and study the stability and performance robustness of the four-
channel method against non-idealities arisen during bilateral control imple-
mentation including master-slave communication latency and changes in
the environment dynamics.
As mentioned before, providing a surgeon with information regarding
contacts made between instruments and tissue during robot-assisted inter-
ventions can improve task efficiency and reliability. However, it has been
established that due to major difficulties in design and technology, incorpo-
rating full haptic interaction in today’s complex surgical systems demands
fundamental system re-designs and upgrades as well as long-term financial
and R & D commitments from the manufacturers. Therefore, in the short
term and for some applications involving robotic surgery, it may be more
cost-effective and advantageous to provide substitute modes of sensory feed-
back to the surgeon. In Chapter 6, alternative methods for feedback of such
December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

x Haptics for Teleoperated Surgical Robotic Systems

information to the surgeon are discussed. It is hypothesized that various

modalities of contact feedback have the potential to enhance performance in
a robot-assisted minimally invasive environment. To verify the hypothesis,
the master-slave test-bed is used to compare users’ performance in doing
a single degree-of-freedom surgical task (lump localization) for different
modalities of contact feedback. In this chapter, it is also studied whether
haptic feedback or substitution for haptic feedback can help improve task
performance under degraded visual conditions.
In master-slave telesurgery, the time delay experienced in the commu-
nication between the master and the slave can cause instability in the
teleoperated system. A wave-based control architecture can theoretically
make a bilateral teleoperation system insensitive to communication time
delays through encoding velocity and force information prior to transmis-
sion. However, transparency of the teleoperation system is altered by this
process. In Chapter 7, we propose two different approaches for improving
transparency of a wave-based delay-compensated teleoperation system: di-
rect force reflection in a two-channel control architecture, which uses the
same number of channels as the traditional position error-based control
scheme with wave variables and, four-channel wave-based control architec-
ture, which is capable of achieving ideal transparency in the presence of
time delays. In order to present a comprehensive performance comparison,
we quantify the transparency of each approach through experiments on the
master-slave system described earlier.
This monograph is primarily aimed at the medical robotics and hap-
tics communities. Due to its practical nature, it will be of use to a wide
range of readers with interests and background in robotics, teleoperation,
haptics, virtual reality, sensor technology, human-machine interaction, and
minimally invasive surgery and therapy.
The funding for the research described in this monograph was provided
by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of
Canada under grants RGPIN-1345 and RGPIN- 227612, the Ontario Re-
search and Development Challenge Fund under grant 00-May-0709 and in-
frastructure grants from the Canada Foundation for Innovation awarded to
the London Health Sciences Centre (CSTAR) and the University of Western
Ontario. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

Contents

Preface vii

List of Figures xv

List of Tables xix

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Robot-Assisted Intervention: Benefits and Applications . 1
1.2 Robotics Technology for Surgery and Therapy . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Augmenting devices and systems . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Supporting devices and systems . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Haptics for Robotic Surgery and Therapy . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Haptic user interface technology . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Haptic surgical teleoperation . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Technological Challenges of the Future . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2. Sensorized Surgical Effector (Slave) 13

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Limitations of endoscopic surgery . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 The need for robot-assisted surgery . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.3 Significance of haptic perception in master-slave
operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.4 Perceptual-motor skills study . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Methods, Materials and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Force reflection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.2 Design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.3 Twist and tip motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

xi
December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

xii Haptics for Teleoperated Surgical Robotic Systems

2.2.4 Interaction measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3. Haptic User Interface (Master) 31

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.1 Computer-assisted endoscopic surgery training . . 31
3.2 Haptic User Interface Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 Force reflection in pitch, yaw and insertion . . . . 34
3.2.2 Force reflection in roll and gripping . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Analysis of the Haptic Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.1 Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.2 Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.3 Force reflection capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4. Unilateral Teleoperation Control 47

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1.1 Direct inverse dynamics control . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.2 Feedback error learning control . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2 PHANToM Inverse Dynamics Identification . . . . . . . . 49
4.3 Adaptive Inverse Dynamics Trajectory Control of the
PHANToM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5. Bilateral Teleoperation Control 55

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2 Stability and Transparency in Haptic Teleoperation . . . . 55
5.2.1 2-channel architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.2.2 4-channel architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.3 Haptic Teleoperation Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3.2 Master-slave communication . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3.3 Observation of hand forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3.4 Observer and controller gains . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3.5 Soft-tissue palpation tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

6. Substitution for Haptic Feedback 81

December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

Contents xiii

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2 Graphical Substitution for Haptic Feedback . . . . . . . . 84
6.2.1 Case study: Lump localization task . . . . . . . . 84
6.3 Multi-Modal Contact Cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.3.1 Case study: Tissue stiffness discrimination Task . 90
6.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

7. Bilateral Teleoperation Control Under Time Delay 97

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.2 Passivity and Absolute Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.2.1 Passivity-based time delay compensation . . . . . 99
7.3 2-Channel Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.3.1 Admittance-type configurations . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.3.2 Hybrid-type configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.4 4-Channel Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.4.1 Delay-free case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.4.2 Wave-based 4-channel architecture . . . . . . . . . 108
7.4.3 Transparency considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7.4.4 3-channel architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.5 Experimental Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Appendix A Mechanical Description of the Slave 121

A.1 Fulcrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
A.2 Laparoscopic instrument assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
A.3 The motor and encoder for the roll direction . . . . . . . 122
A.4 2-DOF gimbals assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
A.5 PHANToM haptic device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Appendix B Mechanical Description of the Master 125

B.1 Fulcrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
B.2 Instrument shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
B.3 Force-reflecting finger loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
B.4 Force reflection in the roll direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
B.5 PHANToM haptic device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Appendix C Kinematics and Dynamics of the PHANToM

Haptic Device 131
December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

xiv Haptics for Teleoperated Surgical Robotic Systems

C.1 Forward kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

C.2 Inverse kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
C.3 Manipulator Jacobian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
C.4 Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Appendix D 1-DOF Master System Modeling and Identification 135

D.1 Dynamic modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
D.2 Parametric identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Appendix E Virtual Reality Peripheral Network 139

Appendix F t-Test and ANOVA 143

Bibliography 145

Index 157
December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

List of Figures

1.1 A block diagram of the Zeus system from Intuitive Surgical, Inc. 6
1.2 (a) The PHANToMr Premium 1.5/6DOF of Sensable Tech-
nologies Inc., (b) the Freedom-6S of MPB Technologies Inc., (c)
the Laparoscopic Surgical Workstation of Immersion Corp., and
(d) the Xitact IHP of Xitact SA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1 (a) The overall end effector including the wrist, twist motor and
tip actuation assembly, (b) details of the tip actuation assem-
bly: the three tubes and two different detachable tips, (c) an
exploded view of (a), and (d) a section view of (b). In (c) and
(d): (1) tip, (2) outer tube, (3) middle tube, (4) inner tube, (5)
load cell, (6) linear motor, (7) outer housing, (8) twist motor,
and (9) free wrist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 Surgical grasper mechanism and a close-up. . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 The ratio of axial and tip forces vs. the jaw angle. . . . . . . . 25
2.4 (a) load cell to find tip forces, (b) gauges to measure bending
moments, (c) gauges to measure the axial forces, and (d) gauge
to measure the torsional moment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5 The experimental V − fz data points for the four experiments
(plus, cross, triangle, circle) and the least-squares linear fit (solid
line) during tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6 The remote center of motion (RCM) created by (a) the da Vinci
and (b) the Neurobot c 2002 IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.7 The slave subsystem of a master-slave test-bed for a minimally
invasive surgery environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.1 Haptic user interface for endoscopic interventions. . . . . . . . 35

xv
December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

xvi Haptics for Teleoperated Surgical Robotic Systems

3.2 Single-DOF force reflection in (a) the finger loops, and (b) the
roll mechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 The sketch of the haptic interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4 The haptic interface and the x = 0, y = 0 and z = 0 planes at the
instrument endpoint. Only a simplified view of the PHANToM
device is shown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.5 Maximum normalized force feedback error (η) percentage per 1◦
angle offset (δ) at each point within the workspace: x = 0 plane
(solid), y = 0 plane (dashed) and z = 0 plane (dotted) – the
distances are in meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.6 (a) GCI versus θ2min and θ3min (the lower bounds of the in-
tegrals on θ2 and θ3 ) when the integral upper bounds are
θ2max = θ3max = 90◦ and `2 /`1 = 0.96, and (b) GCI versus
`2 /`1 when θ2min = θ3min = 0 and θ2max = θ3max = 90◦ . . . . . . 44
3.7 Manipulability of the haptic interface at each point in the
workspace – the distances are in meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.8 Maximum force feedback for a unit torque at each point within
the workspace – the distances are in meters and forces are in
Newtons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.1 (a) Direct inverse dynamics control (top), and (b) feedback error
learning control (bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 Inverse dynamics model identification of the PHANToM robot. 51
4.3 Master and slave positions in feedback error learning control. . 52
4.4 From top to bottom: (a) Master and slave positions and position
error in feedback error learning control in the presence of a dis-
turbance, and (b) adaptation of a weight from the hidden layer
to the output layer’s fy unit with and without the additional
mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

5.1 Equivalent circuit representation of a teleoperation system. . . 56

5.2 (a) Position-error based, (b) direct force reflection, and (c) 4-
channel bilateral control architectures. The shaded blocks rep-
resent control components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.3 A generalized description of a bilateral teleoperation system in
terms of scattering parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4 Root loci of the poles of the 4CH teleoperation system with
γ = −1 when −1 ≤ C6 ≤ 0 and C5 = 1, 0, −1. . . . . . . . . . . 66
December 2, 2007 22:2 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in Monograph-Dec1-07

List of Figures xvii

5.5 The transparency transfer function magnitude for one-way de-

lays Td = 15 msec (top) and Td = 150 msec (bottom). . . . . . 68
5.6 Master-slave experimental setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.7 Master-slave communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.8 Position and force profiles for the PEB teleoperation system. . 73
5.9 Position and force profiles for the DFR teleoperation system. . 74
5.10 Magnitudes of the hybrid parameters for the 2CH teleoperation
systems (solid: PEB, dashed: DFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.11 Position and force profiles for the 3CH teleoperation system with
C3 = 0 and C5 = −1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.12 Position and force profiles for the 4CH teleoperation system with
C3 = 0.5 and C5 = −0.5 (4CH-1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.13 Position and force profiles for the 4CH teleoperation system with
C3 = 1 and C5 = 0 (4CH-2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.14 Magnitudes of the hybrid parameters for 4CH teleoperation sys-
tems (solid: 3CH, dash-dot: 4CH-1, dashed: 4CH-2). . . . . . . 77
5.15 Position profiles for (a) DFR and (b) 3CH teleoperation systems
under hard contact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

6.1 Visual substitution/augmentation for haptic feedback. . . . . . 83

6.2 Master-slave setup for performing telemanipulated lump local-
ization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3 (a) Mean detected lump position (rad); (b) mean exploration time
(sec); (c) mean energy supplied to the tissue (Joule). . . . . . . . . 87
6.4 Master-slave setup for performing telemanipulated tissue stiff-
ness discrimination task. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.5 (a) Mean success rate; (b) mean completion time (sec); (c) mean
energy supplied to the tissue (Joule). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

7.1 Wave-based delay compensated 2CH position error based tele-

operator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.2 (a) Admittance-type and (b) hybrid-type delay-compensated
communication channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.3 Wave-based admittance-type teleoperation systems: (a) APEB;
(b) AKFB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.4 Wave-based hybrid-type teleoperation systems: (a) HPEB; (b)
HKFB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.5 4CH bilateral teleoperation system without time delay. . . . . . 107
7.6 Wave-based 4CH teleoperation system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
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