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(Ebook) A Primer of Botanical Latin With Vocabulary by Emma Short A S George ISBN 9781107693753, 1107693756 Online Version

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A Primer of
Botanical Latin with
Vocabulary

Latin is one of two acceptable languages for describing new plants, and
taxonomists must be able to translate earlier texts in Latin. Providing a
simple explanation of Latin grammar along with an in-depth vocabu-
lary, this is an indispensable guide for systematic botanists worldwide.
All relevant parts of speech are discussed, with accompanying
examples, as well as worked exercises for translating diagnoses and
descriptions to and from Latin. Guidelines for forming specific epithets
are also included. The authors cross-reference their grammar to Stearn’s
Botanical Latin and to articles in the International Code of Nomenclat-
ure for Algae, Fungi and Plants. The comprehensive vocabulary is
enhanced with terms from recent glossaries for non-flowering plants –
lichens, mosses, algae, fungi and ferns – making this an ideal resource
for anyone looking to hone their understanding of Latin grammar and
to translate botanical texts from the past 300 years.

Emma Short worked for 5 years at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK,
on the Index Kewensis database, before co-editing the Authors of Plant
Names database with R. K. Brummitt. She has regularly checked Latin
for Australian Systematic Botany, and has recently taught courses in
Botanical Latin.

Alex George is an Adjunct Associate Professor at the School of


Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Murdoch University, Perth. He
was a botanist with the Western Australian Herbarium for 21 years, then
Editor of the Flora of Australia for 12 years. He studied Latin to Tertiary
level and has used it in describing some 400 new taxa, translating for
others and editing.
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A Primer of
Botanical Latin with
Vocabulary

Emma Short
Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia

Alex George (AM)


Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia
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cambridge university press


Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by


Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107693753

© Cambridge University Press 2013

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception


and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2013

Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by the MPG Books Group

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

ISBN 978-1-107-69375-3 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or


accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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To my parents Tudor and Enid Powell, who encouraged the Latin, and
Edward Mason who taught the botany: multae gratiae. (ES)

To ‘Foureyes’, my Latin teacher at school (also known as Edward


J. Price): gratias reddo; semper meminero. May the Roman gods be
smiling upon you. (AG)
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Contents

Preface page ix
Acknowledgments x
Introduction xi

Part I Grammar
1 The noun 3
2 The adjective and the participle 21
3 The adverb 34
4 The preposition 36
5 The conjunction 38
6 The pronoun 40
7 The verb 47
8 Numerals, measurements 50
9 Prefixes and suffixes 57
10 Miscellany 59

Part II Exercises in translation


11 Exercises 67
12 Answers to the exercises 78

Part III Translating


13 Translating into Latin 91
14 Translating from Latin into English 103

Part IV Vocabulary

References and further reading 335


Index 338
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Preface

This primer is based on short courses in botanical Latin run in Australia at the
Northern Territory Herbarium, Darwin, and the Western Australian Herb-
arium, Perth. We presented these independently and, on discovering that we
had similar approaches, decided to combine them as a book.
Between 1 January 1935 and 31 December 2011 it was mandatory that new
plant names be accompanied by a diagnosis or description in Latin. For non-
fossil algae the period was 1 January 1958 to 31 December 2011, while for
fossil plants published on or after 1 January 1996 either Latin or English could
be used. From 1 January 2012, descriptions of all of these will be permissible in
either Latin or English. Besides this, there will always remain a need for
translating from Latin in order to understand the many botanical texts in this
language.
William Stearn’s wonderful Botanical Latin appeared in 1966 and has gone
through many new impressions and editions, as well as a Chinese translation.
It provides almost all one could require for translating to and from Latin, but a
primer (in the sense of works such as Kennedy’s Shorter Latin Primer,
providing the basic needs) may be useful for those who need to translate the
more straightforward diagnoses and short descriptions now widely used when
describing new taxa. Besides its concise approach, our work also differs from
Stearn’s in including many more terms (especially from cryptogamic groups)
in the vocabulary, while excluding many terms not used in descriptions.
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Acknowledgements

Our gratitude goes to those who read and commented upon our manuscript,
especially to Vivienne Kent, who worked her way through the book and taught
herself botanical Latin in the process, to Katherine Challis, who checked for
inconsistencies, Matthew Barrett who suggested some fruitful glossaries of
fungi, and William Powell, who gave advice. A number of colleagues assisted
with advice on terms to be included.
To those who attended our courses, which provided the inspiration for Alex
George’s course notes, and Emma Short’s Aide-mémoire, and who attended
our classes faithfully in spite of the seemingly indigestible nature of Latin
grammar, many thanks.
We are grateful to the Northern Territory Herbarium for providing desk
space for our working bees (Apis mellifera).
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Introduction

Classical Latin – that used by the Romans – is fairly different in many respects
from modern Latin, and from scientific Latin, in particular. In scientific Latin
the basic grammar and syntax remain but much of the vocabulary is different –
understandably, as many terms were unknown to the Romans. In particular, in
botanical Latin we tend to omit most verbs, making a kind of telegraphic style,
so avoiding one of the more difficult parts of the language.
This primer aims to teach you the very basics of botanical Latin, so that
when the time comes for you to compose your own first description or
diagnosis, starting off will not be the drama you feared, as at least you will
understand the basic workings of the language and the methods used in
translation. Likewise, with this primer as a guide, you should be able to
translate most botanical texts written in Latin. Bear in mind that early
botanical Latin – say, until 1850 or later – is more akin to classical Latin,
and so texts from that time will require wider knowledge of grammar, or
assistance from a Latin scholar.
In many examples in this book, we give the literal translation into English as
well as the colloquial so that the differences between the two languages can be
demonstrated. This means that the English may sometimes appear slightly
unusual or stilted, as the word order will be a bit eccentric.
Whereas classical Latin is a dead language, botanical Latin is very much
alive and kicking and has evolved to include a goodly smattering of Greek
words – which are then ‘forced’ into behaving as Latin words instead of being
declined in a Greek way, which can cause wincing, groans and horror in the
Classical establishment. The classical Latin alphabet comprised 23 letters, that
is, the modern Latin alphabet minus ‘j’, ‘u’ and ‘w’. The letter ‘k’ was rarely
used and ‘y’ appeared in few words, mainly of Greek origin. The letter ‘u’,
which was pronounced as a vowel, was represented by ‘v’ and came into use
when lower-case letters were developed much later. (Did you know that lower
case letters didn’t exist when letters were first invented?) In botanical Latin we
use the whole English alphabet. The letter ‘j’ represents the consonantal or
classical ‘i’ and is pronounced like the ‘y’ in ‘yes’.
Latin is a highly inflected language which means that not only do words
change according to whether they are singular or plural, e.g. ‘flower’ and
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xii Introduction

‘flowers’ in English, but also the relationship of the word to the rest of the
sentence, whether it is the subject or object, whether it is governed by a
preposition, and so on, can be deduced from the ending of the word. In other
words, the subject and object of a verb are not denoted by their positions
relative to the verb within the sentence (in English, sentence construction is
based upon subject, verb and object in that order), but the sense is incorpor-
ated into the nouns themselves, e.g.
The boy picked the fruit
Puer fructum carpit or fructum carpit puer or fructum puer carpit
In each of the three Latin examples above, exactly the same words with
therefore exactly the same meanings are used, although they are written in
three different orders. Grammatically, the sentences are still the same,
although the emphasis has been changed. If this is tried in English, however,
the sentence is rapidly reduced to nonsense (unless the author is writing
Romantic poetry: Alexander Pope ‘Pleasures the sex, as children birds, pursue,
Still out of reach, yet never out of view …’) (Epistle II. To a Lady. Of the
Characters of Women 1743).
A few curiosities about Latin:

• there is no article (the, a, an), and


• there are no words for ‘yes’ and ‘no’ – instead you make a statement in the
positive or negative.

Why do botanists need Latin?


A good explanation was given by Lack (2011), although it was published just
before the XVI International Botanical Congress in Melbourne and thus with
the future of botanical Latin uncertain. We set out the main reasons thus:
1. It is one of two languages allowed for describing new taxa under the
International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants (Melbourne
Code, in preparation). See below for requirements from 1935 to 2011.
2. We need it in order to understand the many texts written in Latin,
especially those without a translation into any other language.
3. Latin can help us to know plants if an epithet is descriptive and hence to
apply that name; e.g. if our plant has white flowers then we can be
reasonably sure that it is not a species with the epithet coccineus (scarlet).
4. It’s a great language and can help in understanding both English grammar
and the origin of many words, not only English but also of other Romance
languages.
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Why do botanists need Latin? xiii

5. It now belongs to no country, so is impartial, and it enables a reader


anywhere to understand a description or diagnosis, even if the accompany-
ing text is in a language that they cannot read.
Although it is no longer mandatory to provide a Latin description or diagno-
sis, it is important to understand the requirements that were in force previ-
ously. The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code,
McNeill et al., 2006) refers to Latin in four Articles – 23, 32, 36 and 60. Of
these the most important is Article 36.
Article 36.1 On or after 1 January 1935 a name of a new taxon (algal and
all fossil taxa excepted) must, in order to be validly published, be
accompanied by a Latin description or diagnosis or by a reference
to a previously and effectively published Latin description or
diagnosis.
Article 36.2 In order to be validly published, a name of a new taxon of
non-fossil algae published on or after 1 January 1958 must be accom-
panied by a Latin description or diagnosis or by a reference to a
previously and effectively published Latin description or diagnosis.
Article 36.3 In order to be validly published, a name of a new taxon of
fossil plants published on or after 1 January 1996 must be accom-
panied by a Latin or English description or diagnosis or by a
reference to a previously and effectively published Latin or English
description or diagnosis.
Recommendation 36A.1 Authors publishing names of new taxa of non-fossil
plants should give or cite a full description in Latin in addition to the
diagnosis.
These rules ceased to be effective on 1 January 2012 but still apply to names
published between the dates cited and 31 December 2011. At the Nomenclat-
ure Sessions of the XVIII International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne,
Australia, in July 2011 a decision was taken to allow new taxa to be accom-
panied by a description in either Latin or English from 1 January 2012. The
relevant Articles in the Melbourne Code will be 39, 43 and 44.
Note that nowhere does the Code stipulate that a description or diagnosis
must be correct Latin. Examples abound of errors, some so serious that the
diagnosis or description is nonsensical.
Article 23 of the Code explains how the names of species should be formed.
Article 60 explains the orthography and gender of names. They can be formed
using only letters of the modern Latin alphabet (which is the same as the
English alphabet).
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xiv Introduction

It is worth reading the introductory parts of William Stearn’s Botanical


Latin. You will find his text both instructive and entertaining. It’s even better,
of course, to read the whole book, though it is not the kind of work that you
read from cover to cover – rather, you refer to it for advice or information.
In this Primer, references to Stearn’s Botanical Latin are to the 4th edition
(1992 and later reprintings).
Incidentally, the names of languages are usually written with an initial
capital, hence it should always be Latin.
A word of advice right now. If in doubt, look it up. don’t guess!

Consulting a Latin dictionary or vocabulary


When searching for a word in a Latin dictionary, remember that you have to
look under the nominative singular for a noun, the masculine nominative
singular for an adjective (and often for the comparative forms), and the first
person indicative active of a verb. You will also see horizontal lines over many
vowels; these are macrons and are placed there by modern editors to indicate
pronunciation, an integral part of classical Latin. Botanists, however, leave
them out, and a good diagnosis doesn’t depend upon rhythm and scansion!

Overview
We start with the parts of speech. Those that we normally require for botanical
Latin are:

• noun
• adjective
• adverb
• pronoun
• preposition
• conjunction
• verb.
We have to know about declensions, i.e. declining nouns, adjectives and
pronouns. There are five declensions.
We have to know about comparison, i.e. comparing adjectives and
adverbs. There are three degrees though, in practice, we think only of two –
comparative and superlative.
We have to know about gender, i.e. whether nouns are masculine, feminine
or neuter.
We have to know about number, i.e. singular and plural.
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Overview xv

We have to know about conjugating verbs, i.e. distinguishing person,


number, tense and voice. There are four conjugations.
Like most languages, Latin has some irregularities with words that are
treated differently from the rest.
These topics are expanded in the following pages.
Bear in mind that you do not have to learn everything by rote (as we were
expected to do at school). The part of speech is always indicated in the
dictionary or vocabulary, likewise the declension or conjugation, gender, etc.
And books such as Stearn’s explain fully declensions, comparison of adjectives
and conjugations. But clearly, the more you learn the better, as it will speed up
your work.
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Part I
Grammar
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Date:20/10/12 Time:03:19:27 Page Number: 2
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