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VOLUME FORTY SEVEN

ADVANCES IN
HEAT TRANSFER
Series Editors

EPHRAIM M. SPARROW
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Minnesota, MN, USA
JOHN P. ABRAHAM
School of Engineering, University of St. Thomas,
St. Paul, MN, USA
JOHN M. GORMAN
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Minnesota, MN, USA

Founding Editors

THOMAS F. IRVINE, JR.

State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY
JAMES P. HARTNETT
University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL

Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London

New York • Oxford • Paris • San Diego
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Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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First edition 2015

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Notices
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experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.

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assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of
products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
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ISBN: 978-0-12-802822-3
ISSN: 0065-2717

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CONTENTS

List of Contributors ix
Preface xi

1. Modeling of Multiscale Heat Transfer Systems Using Volume

Averaging Theory 1
Krsto Sbutega, David Geb, Ivan Catton
1. Introduction 4
2. Theoretical Fundamentals 7
3. Applications 85
4. Concluding Remarks 155
Acknowledgments 157
References 157

2. Nucleate Pool Boiling under Reduced Gravity ConditionsdRole

of Numerical Simulations 167
Vijay K. Dhir
1. Introduction 169
2. Pool Nucleate Boiling 177
3. Results of Bubble Dynamics 185
4. Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer 194
5. Conclusions 199
References 200

3. Friction and Heat Transfer in Liquid and Gas Flows in

Micro- and Nanochannels 203
M. Michael Yovanovich and Waqar A. Khan

1. Introduction 207
2. Characteristic Lengths and Geometry 208
3. Regular Polygonal Microchannels 210
4. Elliptical Microchannels 212
5. Rectangular Microchannels 216
6. Rectangular Microchannels with Circular and Segment Ends 220

v j
vi Contents

7. Circular Segment Microchannels 224

8. Circular Sector Microchannels 225
9. Rhombic Microchannels 227
10. Right Triangular Microchannels 229
11. Isosceles Triangular Microchannels 231
12. Scalene Triangular Microchannels 234
13. Isosceles Trapezoidal Microchannels 241
14. Concentric Circular Annular Microchannels 254
15. Central Regular Polygonal Cores in Circular Microducts 257
16. Central Circular Core in Polygonal Microducts 261
17. Rarefied Gas Flows in Circular and Noncircular Microchannels 265
18. Closure 302
Acknowledgments 303
References 303

4. A Personal View of 50 Years of Thermal Radiation Heat

Transfer Research 309
John R. Howell
1. Introduction 309
2. Radiation Research 312
3. Future Research Areas 330
4. Final Comments 332
References 333

5. Therapeutic Recruitment of Thermoregulation in Humans by

Selective Thermal Stimulation along the Spine 341
Kenneth R. Diller
1. Introduction 342
2. Glabrous Skin Heat Transfer 344
3. Glabrous Skin as a Physiological Compact Heat Exchanger 349
4. Prior Studies of STS in Nonhuman Mammalian and Avian Species 351
5. STS Studies in Humans 358
6. STS Devices to Regulate Human Body Core Temperature Effectively 377
7. Computer Simulation of the Influence of STS on Thermoregulation 382
8. Conclusions 389
Acknowledgments of Support and Contributions 390
Conflict of Interest Statement 390
References 390
Contents vii

6. Evolution of Thermal Dosimetry for Application of Hyperthermia

to Treat Cancer 397
Mark W. Dewhirst, John Abraham, Benjamin Viglianti
1. Introduction 398
2. Importance of Thermal Dosimetry for Hyperthermia and Thermal Ablation 400
3. Randomized Phase III Trial Results 412
References 414

Author Index 423

Subject Index 435
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

John Abraham
School of Engineering, University of St. Thomas, St. Paul, MN, USA
Ivan Catton
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Mark W. Dewhirst
Radiation Oncology Department, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
Vijay K. Dhir
Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of California,
Los Angeles, CA, USA
Kenneth R. Diller
Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin,
TX, USA
David Geb
ANSYS, Inc., San Jose, CA, USA
John R. Howell
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin,
TX, USA
Waqar A. Khan
Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, ON, Canada
Krsto Sbutega
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Benjamin Viglianti
Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
M. Michael Yovanovich
Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, ON, Canada

ix j
PREFACE

This volume of Advances in Heat Transfer maintains and enhances the

fundamental mission of this series. That mission is to provide in-depth
expositions of fundamental and applied topics within the realm of heat
transfer by means of contributions by practitioners that have attained
the status of high expertise. The volume conveys an eclectic collection
of diverse subjects, all of which are highly relevant to current heat transfer
theory and practice.
The article by Sbutega, Geb, and Catton marks another significant
accomplishment of Professor Ivan Catton’s eminent career. The theme of
the paper is a volume-averaging theory to enable analysis of convective
heat transfer in multiscale, heterogeneous engineering structures. Such
approaches are becoming increasingly relevant as geometric complexity
becomes more and more common.
Professor Vijay Dhir has established a record of profound contributions
to two-phase flow and boiling. Although there have been many experi-
ments that have demonstrated the impact of reduced gravity on nucleate
boiling, corresponding models for implementation by numerical simulation
have been sparse. In his article, Professor Dhir has provided a lucid review of
the present status of numerical simulation for boiling.
The career of Professor M. Michael Yovanovich has ranged broadly over
many aspects of heat transfer. The focus of his contribution, with Waqar
Khan, is on heat transfer in micro- and nanochannels. Their review of
this field conveys information for 14 different channel cross-sectional shapes
for laminar flow and heat transfer. For gases, relevant aspects of slip-flow
theory are elucidated.
Professor John R. Howell’s name is frequently associated with novel
facets and unique solution methods for complex problems of radiation
heat transfer. His contribution conveys a highly personal accounting of his
journey through the many experiences that led to his numerous discoveries
and innovations in the field.
The last two contributions to this volume relate to various aspects of bio-
medical engineering heat transfer. This area is growing in importance as ther-
mal issues in human body function are becoming more understood. The
article by Professor Kenneth R. Diller is focused on the impacts of thermal
events on blood flow. The specific focus of his work is the role of selective

xi j
xii Preface

thermal stimulation to the spinal cord as a means to regulate blood flow to a

vascular network that encompasses large-bore shunt vessels.
The second biomedical heat transfer paper is by Mark W. Dewhirst, John
P. Abraham, and Benjamin Viglianti. There are two themes in this work: to
provide an historical overview on the development of methods to measure
temperature for both hyperthermia and thermal ablative approaches and to
convey a brief overview of clinical trial results to date.

EPHRAIM M. SPARROW
JOHN P. ABRAHAM
JOHN M. GORMAN
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 CHAPTER ONE

Modeling of Multiscale Heat

Transfer Systems Using Volume
Averaging Theory
Krsto Sbutega*, 1, David Gebx, Ivan Catton*
*Mechanical Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
x
ANSYS, Inc., San Jose, CA, USA
1
Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]

Contents
1. Introduction 4
2. Theoretical Fundamentals 7
2.1 Analogy with Other Averaging Techniques 9
2.2 Derivation of Generalized VAT Transport Equation 17
2.3 Development of VAT Continuity Equation 32
2.4 Development of VAT Momentum Equation 33
2.5 Development of VAT Energy Equation 36
2.6 Turbulence 39
2.6.1 Development of VAT Turbulent Conservation Equations 41
2.6.2 Models in a Free Turbulent Stream 45
2.6.3 Derivation of k-ε Model in Porous Media 48
2.6.4 Derivation of k-L Model for Porous Media 56
2.7 Closure 57
2.7.1 Closure of VAT Momentum Equation 58
2.7.2 Closure of VAT Energy Equation 67
2.7.3 Closure of VAT Turbulent Equations 76
2.8 Boundary Conditions 82
3. Applications 85
3.1 Heat Sinks 86
3.1.1 Model 88
3.1.2 Results 99
3.2 Heat Exchangers 123
3.2.1 Model 127
3.2.2 Results 140
4. Concluding Remarks 155
Acknowledgments 157
References 157

Advances in Heat Transfer, Volume 47

© 2015 Elsevier Inc.
j
ISSN 0065-2717
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.aiht.2015.08.001 All rights reserved. 1
2 Krsto Sbutega et al.

Abstract
This chapter examines application of volume averaging theory for flow and convective
heat transfer in multiscale engineered structures. The volume-averaged approach is
shown to be an upscaling procedure analogous to other homogenization techniques
that are commonly used in transport phenomena, and is applied to the governing
equations for laminar and turbulent heat transfer and fluid flow. In the homogenization
process information about the underlying fields is lost, which leads to the need to relate
these effects on the averaged equations through a closure procedure. The definition of
these parameters is discussed in detail, and how they can be obtained from available
data or numerical studies. The advantages of the homogenization procedure are
shown by applying it to two common heat transfer devices: a heat sink and a heat
exchanger. It is found that system performance parameters predicted using the ho-
mogenized model are within 5e6% of experimental data, and efficient numerical so-
lution of these equations leads to computational times that are three or four orders
of magnitudes lower than those required by direct numerical simulations. The compu-
tational savings are exploited by coupling the solution procedure to population-based
optimization algorithms, which are used to find an optimum configuration. The result
of this coupling is a heat sink with a thermal resistance of 0.058  C/W, and a heat
exchanger with 96% effectiveness.

Nomenclature
A Fluidesolid interface area within REV
Aij, Bij Drag tensor constants
C Solid equation nondimensional parameter
cd Overall drag tensor
cdp Pressure drag tensor
cf Friction drag tensor
cp Specific heat
Dh Standard hydraulic diameter
dh VAT hydraulic diameter
ff Fanning friction factor
f Fluid temperature coefficients
j Flux tensor
g Volumetric generation
G Fluid equation nondimensional parameter
h Heat transfer coefficient
H Height
I Identity matrix/tensor
K Permeability tensor
k Thermal conductivity/turbulent kinetic energy
L Upper (macro) system length scale/length scale of turbulence
l Lower (micro) scale length scale
lm Inlet basis function expansion coefficients
M1 Momentum nondimensional parameter
M Number of grid points/basis functions in z-direction
m_ Mass flow rate
n Normal vector
Modeling of Multiscale Heat Transfer Systems 3

N Number of basis functions in x-direction

p Pressure
q Heat flux
r Vector with respect to origin
r0 Radius of REV
R Interface nondimensional parameter
Rh Volume fraction-weighted thermal conductivity ratio
Rth Thermal resistance
s Solid temperature coefficients
Sw Interface area per unit volume in REV
Swp Frontal area per unit volume in REV
S Length scale ratios
T Temperature
tb Base thickness
u x-component of velocity
Uavg Average velocity
Uc Velocity scale
v Velocity
V Volume
w Width
yf Vector with respect to REV centroid

Greek Letters
a Diffusivity
d Kronecker delta
ε Turbulent dissipation rate
f Volume fraction
4,g Constants inside trial functions
k Thermal diffusivity
n Dynamic viscosity
m Kinematic viscosity
r Density
s Filter function/turbulent constant
U Domain of solution of differential equation
j Arbitrary function of interest
s Iteration parameter

Subscripts
b Base
c Channel
dh With respect to length scale dh
eff Effective
f Fluid phase
FD Fully developed
fs Fluid solid interface
i Interface
in Inlet
p With respect to pore length scale
s Solid phase
t Turbulent
w Wall
4 Krsto Sbutega et al.

Superscripts and Symbols

^ Dimensional quantity
[ Tensor quantity
/ Vector quantity
eff Effective
stag Stagnation
disp Dispersion
L Time average
0 Fluctuation from time average
w Fluctuation from intrinsic average
hif Intrinsic average
hi Superficial average

1. INTRODUCTION
Nature, in all its beauty and diversity, presents itself in an amazing
range of physical and timescales. From the light-year scale of astronomical
distances and eons of geological time scales, to the Planck length and time-
scales of string theory, the diversity of scales around us is astonishing. Nature
being the inspiration and subject of engineering, leads to the ubiquitous
presence of multiscale problems in engineering applications. Since the scope
of engineering is design, modeling of system behavior and determination of
performance parameters is crucial. In most cases, models that are accurate
and practical over a certain scale range are inaccurate and/or inefficient
over a different range. For example, although all design parameters for a sys-
tem could be obtained by studying the motion of elementary particles (e.g.,
atoms, photons, phonons) in and around it, such an approach is undoubtedly
not practical in designing a cargo ship. The study of transport phenomena
through multiscale systems is no different.
In the study of transport phenomena, scale disparities arise from the phys-
ics and mathematics of the problem, such as in singularly perturbed problems
(e.g., boundary layers) and turbulence, or they can result from the geomet-
rical features of the system, such as in a porous medium. In both cases,
modeling challenges are similar, and it will be shown in this chapter that
certain mathematical approaches to modeling systems that present length
disparities are indeed very similar. The hot debate about climate change
has sparked strong interest in global circulation models to study environ-
mental transport phenomena on a global scale. This is clearly a multiscale
problem, with scales ranging from the size of small cities to earth’s radius.
Furthermore, recent development in technology and manufacturing have
given us access to micro (and lower) time and length scales and have opened
Modeling of Multiscale Heat Transfer Systems 5

amazing new possibilities in all fields of engineering and science. It is not

uncommon now to have man-made large-scale systems that contain both
micro- and nanoscale features to improve performance. Therefore, develop-
ment of multiscale models is a crucial aspect in engineering, and it is not
surprising that research interest in the field has been exponentially growing
in the last decade.
There are several approaches to modeling of transport phenomena in
multiscale modeling, each one with its advantages and disadvantages. The
most accurate approach is to solve the problem directly at the smallest scale
of interest l, and nowadays these are mostly carried out computationally.
Examples of these types of approaches are molecular dynamics simulation
of diffusion, direct numerical simulations (DNSs) of turbulence, and
pore-scale simulation in porous media flow. These methods are essential
to understand the physics of the problem at the lowest scale of interest
and could be applied to the entire system, although at great computational
cost. Nonetheless, studying phenomena on the system scale L using this
approach is not realistic when the length scale disparity is large:
l=L  1 (1.1)
To avoid these shortcomings, in multiscale systems the scales are often
separated, and the lower- and upper-scale models are solved separately (or
iteratively). The main assumptions of these methods are that the large-scale
disparity leads to a weak coupling between the two problems. As will be dis-
cussed later, the length scale disparity, Eqn (1.1), is given different names in
different multiscale problems and results from different physical arguments.
The earliest example of such methods is matched asymptotic studies of
singularly perturbed equations. In these problems, a small boundary layer
is present in which quantities vary significantly allowing an inner solution
to the boundary layer and an outer solution to be defined and solved.
Another approach involves averaging the lower-scale equations on an inter-
mediate scale; this allows the study of the phenomena at the intermediate
scale, while still incorporating the effects of the lower scale through some
closure parameters. Examples of these approaches are continuum approxi-
mation in mechanics, Reynolds-averaged NaviereStokes (RANS), large-
eddy simulation (LES) studies of turbulence, and, what will be the subject
of this chapter, Volume Averaging Theory (VAT) for geometrical multiscale
heterogeneous systems. Although not discussed in this work, it has been
shown that all three of these methods can be mathematically unified through
asymptotic expansion analysis [1e3]. Any averaging process leads to a loss of
6 Krsto Sbutega et al.

information about the underlying functions; therefore, some additional

information about the effects of the lost information on the parameters of
interest is usually required to close the problem. Quoting Einstein, the
key step in the closure of an equation is to make it “as simple as possible,
but not simpler.” The advantage of these averaged types of solutions is
that the derived model can be solved much more efficiently and, when
the effects of lower-scale quantities are properly defined and modeled, their
effects are still taken into account. Another advantage of these averaged
models is that they allow easier comparison with lab experiments. In most
cases, it is very challenging, if not impossible, to directly determine the
lower-scale quantities, and lab measurements provide averaged quantities.
For example, velocity and temperature in a macrosystem can be measured
in a lab; therefore, it makes sense to have a model that directly predicts those
quantities such that its accuracy can be measured. At the same time, exper-
imental validation of a method that predicts position and momentum of
molecules throughout the same system is not really feasible. Similarly, for
a porous medium with a complex geometrical structure, it could be impos-
sible to obtain velocities and temperatures inside the pores, and average
quantities (e.g., average pressure drop, average temperature increase) are
usually measured. Therefore, it seems fit to have methods that predict quan-
tities that can be measured.
The focus of this work will be on VAT and its application to modeling,
design, and optimization of heat transfer systems. Although VAT was devel-
oped for study of transport phenomena in porous media, which are intrin-
sically multiscale and heterogeneous, its features and rigor make it very
useful in any multiscale heterogeneous medium, independent of whether
or not it is porous in the true meaning of the word. This chapter will be
divided in two main sections. The first section will be dedicated to the deri-
vation of system scale conservation equations, along with mathematical and
physical explanations of the method. Although rigorous mathematical foun-
dations for VAT have been laid out by Whitaker [4,5], Quintard [6e10],
and Gray [11,12], empirical variations are still widespread. The authors
will attempt to show that the VAT approach is a rigorous approach that leads
to exact equations that lead to a geometrically simplified but physically
accurate model of the system under consideration. Approximations in the
solution are introduced in the definition and determination of the closure
parameters; therefore, the closure problem will be discussed in depth. An
analysis of turbulence and its modeling in porous media will be presented,
and two models will be derived. Boundary conditions and numerical
Modeling of Multiscale Heat Transfer Systems 7

methods for the resulting system of partial differential equations (PDEs) will
be examined.
The second section of this chapter will be dedicated to applications of the
theories discussed in the first section. VAT-based models will be applied to
study heat transfer and fluid flow in heat sinks and heat exchangers. The
closure parameters for different geometries are obtained from experimental
or numerical calculations, and the averaged equations are solved numeri-
cally. The accuracy of the results will be proven by comparing the predicted
results with experimental data. The geometric flexibility of the method will
be shown by comparing performance parameters obtained using the same
equations but with different closure parameters for different geometries.
Finally, it will be shown how the drastic reduction in computational time
enables the use of optimization studies to determine optimal design param-
eters for the system under consideration. It is our goal not only to convince
the reader that VAT is a rigorous physical and mathematical tool, but also to
illustrate through applications that it is a very useful tool for the design and
optimization of geometrically complex multiscale heat transfer systems.

2. THEORETICAL FUNDAMENTALS
The omnipresence of porous media in geological systems has spurred
strong interest over the last century in effective modeling of transfer pro-
cesses through such media. The first well-known study in such systems is
attributed to Darcy [13] in 1856, where in his Appendix D he states the
most famous law for flow-through porous media:
1
hvi ¼  K$Vp (2.1)
m
where hvi is the superficial velocity, m is the viscosity, K is the permeability
tensor, and Vp is the pressure gradient. For the sake of accuracy, it should be
noted that in its original form given by Darcy, the equation is one-
dimensional and permeability is a constant. This equation relates the average
velocity through the porous medium to the pressure gradient across it. This
equation has been proven to be valid only for slow viscous flow of a
Newtonian fluid and since then, several empirical modifications to this law
have been made to extend its validity. Some of the most important of these
modifications are the additions by Brinkman [14] and Forchheimer [15],
who added correction factors to extend Darcy’s law to higher speed flows
8 Krsto Sbutega et al.

and non-Newtonian fluids. These additions result in the Brinkmane

Forchheimer-extended Darcy equation:

 mf rf c1
0 ¼ V pf þ meff V2 hvi  hvi  1=2 hvi2 ¼ 0 (2.2)
K K
Although these equations have been used for many years to model flow
through different porous media with good results, they are purely experi-
mental and lack a solid theoretical foundation. These equations can be
very useful in practice for cases in which their limits and the empirical con-
stant on which they are dependent have been determined; however, since
they are purely empirical they cannot give a correct description of the phys-
ics of the problem, and it is unclear how to apply them to new problems.
On the other hand, it will be shown that direct integration of the
NaviereStokes equations (or other forms of the momentum conservation
equations for non-Newtonian fluids) using VAT will give a physical descrip-
tion of the transport in a porous medium. Furthermore, using VAT, a theo-
retically based expression relating empirical properties such as permeability
and effective viscosity to the geometry of the porous media and physical
properties of fluid can be obtained. Thus, VAT allows, with proper closure,
to efficiently obtain mean values of velocity, temperature, electric charge,
and so on for several porous media geometries and different fluids. VAT
was first proposed in the 1960s by Anderson and Jackson [16], Slattery
[17], Marle [18], Whitaker [4], Gray [11], and Zolotarev and Radushkevich
[19] and has since been extended by the work of numerous investigators
such as Quintard [20], Carbonell [21], Plumb [22], Travkin and Catton
[23], Bear [24], Kaviany [25], Kuwahara and Nakayama [26], Hsu [27],
Ochoa-Tapia [28], and Lemos [29].
This list of contributions is not intended to be comprehensive, as it is not
possible to cite all contributors to the advancement of VAT in the last several
decades. Recently, VAT has been applied to several new fields, and in the
last decade it has found many applications in biological systems and their
modeling. Diffusive and convective flows through multiscale systems are
extremely common in biological applications. Species diffusion plays a
key role in delivering nutrients through scaffoldings to cells for tissue
growth, delivering drugs through tissue to defective cells for drug treat-
ments, and spreading contrast fluid through joints to damaged areas for im-
aging. Lasseux et al. [30] developed a three-phase model based on VAT for
species reaction and transport during in vitro tissue growth. Khanafer and
Vafai [31] used VAT to study diffusion for magnetic resonance imaging
Modeling of Multiscale Heat Transfer Systems 9

and drug delivery systems. Fluid flow, convective species transport, and heat
transfer also play a key role in the intricate multiscale circulatory system.
Nakayama [32e34] developed a general bioheat equation to study transport
phenomena in circulatory systems. Khanafer and Vafai [35,36] also used
VAT to develop models for transport in arterial walls, treatment of brain
aneurysm, and blood perfusion. The rapid advancements in biotechnology
and the growing interest in the field has opened an entirely new area for
application of VAT, and its applications in biological systems are expected
to grow exponentially in next few years.
The main features of VAT will be described in great detail in the core of
this chapter; however, it is important to point out here that the VAT
averaging process produces equations that are exact. However, the result
is a set of partial integrodifferential equations that contain a mix of averaged,
fluctuation, and pointwise quantities. Since the ultimate goal is to obtain
equations in the average quantities alone, a closure scheme is introduced
to model the effect of these fluctuations and pointewise quantities on the
average values, and this is where approximations are introduced. Thus,
approximations to the solution of the equations are introduced in the closure
scheme, not in the derivation of the equations themselves. It is then obvious
that closure is usually problem specific, and the key to achieving good results
using VAT is a closure scheme that will correctly portray the physics and
geometry of the problem at hand. First, it is shown that the VAT approach
is similar to other common approaches in multiscale problems.

2.1 Analogy with Other Averaging Techniques

The continuum approach is today such an established technique that its un-
derlying assumptions are sometimes forgotten. Following Bear [24], a short
review is provided here in order to show the parallel between the contin-
uum approach in fluid flow and the volume-averaging approach in porous
media. Because of the widespread use of the continuum approach, showing
an analogy between it and VAT will help “demystify” the VAT approach,
and at the same time elucidate its limits of applicability and some of its issues.
Since the rest of this work will deal with two-scale systems, the smaller scale
will be defined as the microscale and given the symbol l (with appropriate
subscript), while the larger scale will be defined as the macroscale L. While
the microscale is defined by lower-scale phenomena, the macroscale de-
pends on the problem under consideration; therefore, it is not given any
subscript. For the different averaging theories discussed in this section, the
actual order of magnitude of micro- and macroscales can be significantly
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