What is a Part of Speech?

We can categorize English words into 9 basic types called "parts of speech" or "word classes".
It's quite important to recognize parts of speech. This helps you to analyze sentences and
understand them. It also helps you to construct good sentences.

Parts of Speech Table

This is a summary of the 9 parts of speech*. You can find more detail if you click on each part of
speech.

part of speech function or example example sentences

"job" words

Verb action or state (to) be, EnglishClub is a web site. I like

have, do, EnglishClub.
like, work,
sing, can,
must

Noun thing or person pen, dog, This is my dog. He lives in my

work, music, house. We live in London.
town,
London,
teacher,
John

Adjective describes a good, big, My dogs are big. I like big dogs.
noun red, well,
interesting

Determiner limits or a/an, the, 2, I have two dogs and some

"determines" a some, many rabbits.
noun
Adverb describes a quickly, My dog eats quickly. When he is
verb, adjective silently, well, very hungry, he eats really
or adverb badly, very, quickly.
really

Pronoun replaces a I, you, he, Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.

noun she, some

Preposition links a noun to to, at, after, We went to school on Monday.

another word on, but

Conjunction joins clauses or and, but, I like dogs and I like cats. I like
sentences or when cats and dogs. I like dogs but I
words don't like cats.

Interjection short oh!, ouch!, Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are
exclamation, hi!, well you? Well, I don't know.
sometimes
inserted into a
sentence
Punctuations

Punctuation is the system of symbols that we use to separate written sentences and parts of
sentences, and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a "punctuation mark".

Full Stop / Period

1. Use a full stop at the end of a sentence:

● The man arrived. He sat down.

2. Use full stops with abbreviations (in an abbreviation the last letter of the word and of the
abbreviation are not the same):

● Co. (Company)
● etc. (et cetera)
● M.P. (Member of Parliament)

3. Do not use full stops with contractions (in a contraction the last letter of the word and of the
contraction are the same):

● Ltd (Limited)
● Dr (Doctor)
● St (Saint)

A comma in writing is like a pause inside a sentence when speaking. We use commas inside
sentences. Commas separate parts of a sentence into logical elements. Commas have no
meaning, but they help us to see the structure and therefore the meaning of the sentence.

Put a space after a comma. Do not put a space before a comma.

good spacing:

xxx, xxx

bad spacing:

xxx ,xxx

xxx , xxx
xxx,xxx

1. Use a comma between items in a series or list. In a sentence, the last two items usually do
not need a comma between them as they are separated by "and". However, if one or both of the
last two items are long, a comma may be useful.

● coffee, tea, sugar, milk, eggs, butter, salt

● My favourite sports are football, rugby, swimming, boxing and golf.
● Hunsa was wearing blue jeans, black shoes, his brand new white shirt, and a brown
and green cap.

2. Use a comma between three or more adjectives or adverbs.

● I like the old, brown, wooden table.

● He bought an old, red, open-top Volkswagen.
● He ran quickly, quietly and effortlessly.

3. For two adjectives, use a comma where you could use "and".

● It was a short, simple film. (It was a short and simple film.)
● I have a big black dog. (I have a big and black dog.)

4. Use a comma for numbers over 999. (In English, commas separate thousands and periods
separate decimals. Note that some languages use the opposite system.)

● 1,000 (one thousand)

● 1,569
● $73,050.75
● 2,000,000
● 3,400,500
● 10.5 (ten point five or ten and a half) - note the use of the period, not comma

5. Use a comma for addresses, some dates, and titles following a name.

● 911 Avenue Mansion, Sathorn Road, Bangkok 10100, Thailand

● Los Angeles, California
● November 4, 1948 (but 4 November 1948)
● Fred Ling, Professor of English

6. Use a comma before or after direct speech. Do not use a comma for reported speech.
 ● He said, "I love you."
● "I love you," he said.
● He told her that he loved her.

7. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to join two
independent clauses. If the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is
optional.

● He didn't want to go, but he went anyway.

● I want to work as an interpreter, so I am studying Russian at university.
● She is kind so she helps people.

8. Use commas for parenthetical elements. A "parenthetical element" is any part of a sentence
that can be removed without changing the real meaning of the sentence.

● John Geton, who is chairman of the company, is quite old.

● Andrew, my wife's brother, cannot come.
● Andrew (my wife's brother) cannot come.
● The objective, to find peace in both countries, is hard to reach.

9. Use a comma after an introductory element. A comma is optional for short, simple
introductory elements.

● Rushing to catch the flight, he forgot to take his phone.

● As the year came to an end, he realised the days were getting shorter.
● By evening we were getting worried.
● After a hefty meal cooked by his host's wife, he went to sleep.
● After a snack he went to sleep.

10. Sentence adverbs (words like however, unfortunately, surprisingly that modify a whole
sentence) often require one or two commas, depending on their position in the sentence.

● However, Anthony did arrive.

● Anthony, however, did arrive.
● We were, unfortunately, too late.
● He had, not surprisingly, lost his temper.

11. An adverbial clause often needs a comma when it comes at the beginning of a sentence
(but not at the end of a sentence).

● If I win the lottery, I will buy a castle.

 ● I will buy a castle if I win the lottery.

12. Do not use a comma to separate two complete sentences. In this case, use a full stop
(period) or semi-colon.

● Ram wants to go out. Anthony wants to stay home.

● Ram wants to go out, Anthony wants to stay home.

Semi-colon

1. We sometimes use a semi-colon instead of a full stop or period. This is to separate sentences
that are grammatically independent but that have closely connected meaning.

● Josef likes coffee; Mary likes tea.

● Tara is a good speaker; she speaks very clearly.
● You did your best; now let's hope you pass the exam.
● Ram wants to go out; Anthony wants to stay home.

Note that in the above examples it is not correct to use a comma instead of the semi-colon.

2. Use a semi-colon as a kind of "super comma". When we have a list of items, we usually
separate the items with commas. If the list is complicated, we may prefer to use semi-colons in
some cases.

● ABC Investments has offices in five locations: Kensington, London; Brighton & Hove;
and Oxford, Cambridge and Manchester.
● Rental cars must be returned on time; with a full tank of petrol; in undamaged condition;
and at the same location as they were collected from.

Colon
The job of the colon is simple: to introduce.

1. Use a colon to introduce a list:

● There are three countries in North America: Mexico, the USA and Canada.
● We can see many things in the sky at night: the moon, stars, planets, comets, planes
and even satellites.

2. Actually, you can use a colon to introduce a single item, especially when you want to
emphasize that item:

● We were all waiting for the hero of the evening: John.

● There is one thing that he will not accept: stupidity.
● The job of the colon is simple: to introduce.

3. Use a colon to introduce direct speech or a quotation:

● He stood up and said loudly: "Ladies and Gentlemen, please be seated."

● John whispered in my ear: "Have you seen Andrea?"
● As Confucius once wrote: "When words lose their meaning, people lose their freedom."

4. Use a colon to introduce an explanation:

● We had to cancel the party: too many people were sick.

● There is no need to rush: the meeting will be starting one hour late.

5. Use a colon to introduce examples, as shown above. For example, item 1 above reads "Use
a colon to introduce a list" and ends with a colon followed by two example sentences.

A hyphen is a very short horizontal line between words.

Note that there is no space between a hyphen and the character on either side of it.
Do not confuse a hyphen (-) with a dash (—), which is longer.

The rules about hyphens are not fixed. The points below are guidelines rather than rules.

1. Use a hyphen to join words to show that their meaning is linked in some way:

● book-case (or bookcase)

● race-horse (or racehorse)
● pick-me-up

2. Use a hyphen to make compound modifiers before nouns:

● a blue-eyed boy (but The boy was blue eyed.)

● the well-known actor (but The actor is well known.)
● their four-year-old son (but Their son is four years old.)

3. Use a hyphen with certain prefixes. The prefixes all-, ex-, and self- usually need a hyphen:

● all-inclusive
● ex-wife
● self-control

When a prefix comes before a capitalized word, use a hyphen:

● non-English

When a prefix is capitalized, use a hyphen:

● A-frame

4. Use a hyphen when writing numbers 21 to 99, and fractions:

● twenty-one
● one hundred and sixty-five
● two-thirds

5. Use a hyphen to show that a word has been broken at the end of a line (hyphenation):

The directors asked

for a more conven-
 ient location.

6. Use a hyphen with "suspended compounds". When we use several very similar compounds
together, it may not be necessary to repeat the last part of the compound:

● They need to employ more full- and part-time staff. (not They need to employ more full-
time and part-time staff.)
● This rule applies only to 12-, 13- and 14-year olds. (not This rule applies only to 12-year
olds, 13-year olds and 14-year olds.)
●

Dash

A dash is a horizontal line that shows a pause or break in meaning, or that represents missing
words or letters. Note that dashes are rather informal and should be used carefully in writing.
Dashes are often used informally instead of commas, colons and brackets. A dash may or may
not have a space on either side of it.

Do not confuse a dash (—) with a hyphen (-), which is shorter.

1. Use a dash to show a pause or break in meaning in the middle of a sentence:

● My brothers—Richard and John—are visiting Hanoi. (Could use commas.)

● In the 15th century—when of course nobody had electricity—water was often pumped by
hand. (Could use brackets.)

2. Use a dash to show an afterthought:

● The 1st World War was supposed to be the world's last war—the war to end war.
● I attached the photo to my email—at least I hope I did!

3. Use a dash like a colon to introduce a list:

● There are three places I'll never forget—Paris, Bangkok and Hanoi.
● Don't forget to buy some food—eggs, bread, tuna and cheese.

4. Use a dash to show that letters or words are missing:

 ● They are really f––––d up. (Typically used for offensive words.)
● I will look ––––– the children. (Typically used in "missing word" questions.)

In fact, there are two kinds of dash:

● the en-dash (–), which is the width of the letter "n"

● and the em-dash (—), which is the width of the letter "m"

However, the difference between them is rather technical and mainly of value to typographers.
The dash is a convenient and easy mark to use in hand-writing. But it is often difficult to find on
a keyboard and for this reason some people use the easier-to-find but shorter hyphen (-) when
word-processing.

The main function of a question mark is to indicate a question or query.

1. Use a question mark at the end of all direct questions:

● What is your name?

● How much money did you transfer?
● Did you send euro or dollars?

2. Use a question mark after a tag question:

● You're French, aren't you?

● Snow isn't green, is it?
● He should go and see a doctor, shouldn't he?

3. Don't forget to use a question mark at the end of a sentence that really is a direct question:

● How else would I get there, after all?

● What if I said to you, "I don't love you any more"?
● "Who knows when I'll die?", he asked rhetorically.
4. In very informal writing (personal letter or email), people sometimes use a question mark to
turn a statement into a question:

● See you at 9pm?

In the same situation, they may use two or three question marks together to show that they are
not sure about something:

● I think you said it would cost $10???

5. Do not use a question mark after an indirect or reported question:

● The teacher asked them what their names were. (What are your names?)
● John asked Mary if she loved him. (Do you love me?)
● I'm wondering if she's coming. (Is she coming?)

6. Many polite requests or instructions are made in the form of a question. But because they are
not really questions, they do not take a question mark:

● Could you please send me your catalogue.

● Would all first-class and business-class passengers now start boarding.

7. Be careful with titles and abbreviations when question marks are involved:

● "Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf?" was a play before it was a film.

● Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf? was a play before it was a film.
● Have you seen the film "Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf?"?
● Have you seen the film Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf??
● Have you ever been to L.A.?

Note that there should be no space immediately before a question mark.

Exclamation Mark

Called "exclamation point" in American English

An exclamation mark usually shows strong feeling, such as surprise, anger or joy. Using an
exclamation mark when writing is rather like shouting or raising your voice when speaking.
Exclamation marks are most commonly used in writing quoted speech. You should avoid using
exclamation marks in formal writing, unless absolutely necessary.

1. Use an exclamation mark to indicate strong feelings or a raised voice in speech:

● She shouted at him, "Go away! I hate you!"

● He exclaimed: "What a fantastic house you have!"
● "Good heavens!" he said, "Is that true?"
● "Help!"
● "Shut up!"
● "Stop!"

2. Many interjections need an exclamation mark:

● "Hi! What's new?"

● "Oh! When are you going?"
● "Ouch! That hurt."

3. A non-question sentence beginning with "what" or "how" is often an exclamation and requires
an exclamation mark:

● What idiots we are! (We are such idiots.)

● How pretty she looked in that dress! (She looked very pretty in that dress.)

4. In very informal writing (personal letter or email), people sometimes use two or more
exclamation marks together:

● I met John yesterday. He is so handsome!!!

● Remember, don't be late!!
● I'll never understand this language!!!!

Remember, try to avoid exclamation marks in formal writing such as an essay or business
letter.

Slash
The slash (/) is also known as: forward slash, stroke, oblique. You should use the slash with
care in formal writing.

1. A slash is often used to indicate "or":

● Dear Sir/Madam (Sir or Madam)

● Please press your browser's Refresh/Reload button. (Refresh or Reload)
● The speech will be given by President/Senator Clinton. (President Clinton or Senator
Clinton)
● Mary will eat cake and/or fruit. (Mary will eat cake, or Mary will eat fruit, or Mary will eat
cake and fruit.)

Do not over-use the slash to indicate "or". It can suggest laziness on the part of the writer. The
"and/or" construction is widely considered to be very bad form.

2. Use a slash for fractions:

● 1/2 (one half)

● 2/3 (two thirds)
● 9/10 (nine tenths)

3. Use a slash to indicate "per" in measurements of speed, prices etc:

● The speed limit is 100 km/h. (kilometres per hour)

● He can type at 75 w/m. (words per minute)
● The eggs cost $3/dozen. ($3 per dozen)
● They charge €1.50/litre for petrol. (€1.50 per litre)

4. People often use a slash in certain abbreviations:

● This is my a/c number. (account)

● John Brown, c/o Jane Green (care of)
● n/a (not applicable, not available)
● w/o (without)

5. A slash is often used in dates to separate day, month and year:

 ● On credit card: Expires end 10/15 (October 2015)
● He was born on 30/11/2007. (30th November 2007 - BrE)
● It was invented on 11/30/2007. (November 30th, 2007 - AmE)

6. The slash is used to separate parts of a website address (URL) on the Internet, and to
separate folders on some computer systems:

Apostrophe

1. Use an apostrophe in possessive forms:

● the ball of the boy the boy's ball

● Tara's sister
● my friend's mother
● New York's nightmare scenario
● the moon's phases

2. Use an apostrophe in contracted forms (the apostrophe shows that letters have been left
out):

● cannot can't
● they have they've
● I would (or I had) I'd
● it is (or it has) it's
● who is who's

Certain words are sometimes written with an apostrophe (to show that they are really a
shortened form of the original, longer word):

● influenza 'flu ( or flu)

● telephone 'phone ( or phone)

Some people use an apostrophe when the first two figures of a year are left out:

● 1948 '48
3. You can use an apostrophe to show the plural of letters and numbers:

● You should dot your i's and cross your t's.

● Do you like music from the 1950's?

You can use an apostrophe to show a plural form for words that are not normally plural:

● Your plan is good, even if there are lots of if's and but's in it.

Brackets

Brackets are symbols that we use to contain "extra information", or information that is not part of
the main content. Brackets always come in pairs—an "opening" bracket before the extra
information, and a "closing" bracket after it. There are two main types of bracket: round () and
square []. British English and American English define them differently, as you see below.

Round Brackets or Parentheses

British English

( ) = round brackets or brackets

American English

( ) = parentheses

Round brackets are basically used to add extra information to a sentence. Look at these
examples:

1. explain or clarify
○ Tony Blair (the former British prime minister) resigned from office in 2007.
2. indicate plural or singular
○ Please leave your mobile telephone(s) at the door.
 3. add a personal comment
○ Many people love parties (I don't).
4. define abbreviations
○ The matter will be decided by the IOC (International Olympic Committee).

Some grammarians believe that (whenever possible) we should use commas.

Some grammarians believe that, whenever possible, we should use commas.

Ellipsis Mark

The ellipsis mark is also called a "suspension point" or "dot dot dot".

The ellipsis mark consists of three dots (periods). We use the ellipsis mark in place of missing
words. If we intentionally omit one or more words from an original text, we replace them with an
ellipsis mark.

● Suppose we want to quote "The film focussed on three English learners from Asia who
were studying at university." Perhaps we want to omit "from Asia who were" to save
space. So we write:

"The film focussed on three English learners...studying at university."

The new sentence still makes sense, but the ellipsis mark shows the reader that
something is missing.

We sometimes also use an ellipsis mark to indicate a pause when someone is speaking, or an
unfinished sentence. Look at these examples:

● She turned to James and said, "Darling, there is something...I need to tell you. I have
never felt like...like this before."
● "It's not easy to explain. It's not..." Her voice trailed away as emotion welled up within
her.

The 4 Types of Sentence Structure

Simple Sentence Structure

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. (An independent clause contains a
subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.)

● I like coffee.
● Mary likes tea.
● The earth goes round the sun.
● Mary did not go to the party.

Compound Sentence Structure

A compound sentence is two (or more) independent clauses joined by a conjunction or semi-
colon. Each of these clauses could form a sentence alone.

● I like coffee and Mary likes tea.

● Mary went to work but John went to the party.
● Our car broke down; we came last.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions:

● and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

Complex Sentence Structure

A complex sentence consists of an independent clause plus a dependent clause. (A

dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, and contains a
subject and verb, but does not express a complete thought.)

● We missed our plane because we were late.

● Our dog barks when she hears a noise.
● He left in a hurry after he got a phone call.
● Do you know the man who is talking to Mary?
Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:

● after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until,
when, where, whether, while

Here are the five basic relative pronouns:

● that, which, who, whom, whose

Compound-Complex Sentence Structure

A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.

● John didn't come because he was ill so Mary was not happy.
● He left in a hurry after he got a phone call but he came back five minutes later.