Resources, Conservation & Recycling 128 (2018) 110–117

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation & Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

Chemical composition and value-adding applications of coffee industry by- T

products: A review
⁎
Brendan Janissen, Tien Huynh
School of Sciences, RMIT University, PO Box 71, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Processing urban waste is becoming a major challenge, with the current state and forecasted increase in urba-
Coffee waste nisation. Finding novel approaches to reduce and recycle this waste, using value-adding applications, is para-
Coffee by-products mount if we are to meet the needs of a growing population. Organic waste is of particular concern, as much of
Value-adding applications this can be treated and recycled for horticulture practices, but most find their final sink in landfill. With coffee
Ecotoxicology
now the second largest commodity worldwide, recycling these nutrient-rich by-products could reduce the
amount of organic waste sent to landfill, whilst producing value adding products. Some chemical compounds
present in these by-products, such as caffeine, tannins and chlorogenic acid are of ecotoxicological concern and
can limit their value-adding applications. The aim of this literature review was to 1) characterise the waste
obtained from the coffee industry; 2) outline the current value adding applications; 3) highlight limitations that
prevent full utilization of coffee by-products and 4) discuss possible solutions that could maximize by-product
utilization and ameliorating their negative environmental impacts. It was concluded that full utilization of these
by-products is not always achieved, even though there is evidence to support their potential. This was mainly
due to a lack of infrastructure and cross-chain networks between applications.

1. Introduction (Fig. 1). Utilizing these by-products as a base or substrate for value
adding applications is an effective way to minimize their wastage as
The global population is predicted to rise up to 11 billion by the landfill.
middle of the century, with around a third of all people concentrated in Current value adding applications include biofuel (Woldesenbet
urban cities and towns (UNDESA, 2014). With this change in popula- et al., 2016), mushroom (Thielke, 1989), and fertiliser (Hachicha et al.,
tion dynamics, we are now faced with the pressing challenge of pro- 2012) production, along with enzyme (Battestin and Macedo, 2007),
cessing urban waste, requiring a move towards more sustainable dietary fibre (Ballesteros et al., 2014), and bioactive compound ex-
practices (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). Organic waste is one of traction (Murthy and Naidu, 2012a). The feasibility of by-products for
the highest contributors to municipal solid waste (MSW) in Australia, particular applications can be limited due to their composition. The
with a high potential for energy recovery from landfill biogas and ad- presence of phenolic compounds such as caffeine and tannins limits
vanced waste treatment of garden waste, paper and timber (Randell their use in animal feeds due to their anti-nutritional properties (Low
et al., 2014). Although a large proportion of organic waste is recycled, it et al., 2015). Similarly, the presence of chlorogenic acid limits their
is still the second highest material category for disposal rates at over 6.0 application as a plant fertiliser as it is phytotoxic (Franklin and Dias,
Mt, suggesting more innovative recovery methods are required to re- 2011). Furthermore, there is mounting evidence that these bioactive
duce this wastage (Randell et al., 2014). compounds are of ecotoxicological concern. Developmental, behavioral
Globally, coffee is the second largest commodity and produces an and morphological abnormalities have been observed in a variety of
estimated 0.5 and 0.18 t of coffee pulp (CP) and husk (CH) respectively aquatic organisms due to exposure to caffeine and tannins, including
per tonne of fresh coffee (Roussos et al., 1995) and six million tonnes of algae, sea urchin and fish (Meriç et al., 2005; Rodriguez et al., 2014;
spent coffee grounds (SCG) per year (Mussatto et al., 2011b). According Zarrelli et al., 2014). Chlorogenic acid has negative effects on seed
to the International Coffee Organisation (ICO, 2017), annual coffee germination and plant growth (Al-Charchafchi and Al-Quadan, 2010).
production increased from 140 to 152 million 60 kg bags since 2010, Bioremediation using solid-state fermentation (SSF) and submerged
thus minimizing coffee by-products presents a serious challenge fermentation are potential methods for detoxifying coffee by-products

⁎
Corresponding author at: Tel.: +61 3 9925 7124; fax: +61 3 9925 7110.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (B. Janissen), [email protected] (T. Huynh).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.10.001
Received 21 July 2017; Received in revised form 25 September 2017; Accepted 1 October 2017
Available online 10 October 2017
0921-3449/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
B. Janissen, T. Huynh Resources, Conservation & Recycling 128 (2018) 110–117

Fig. 1. Global coffee production between 2010 and 2017 obtained from the International
Coffee Organisation.

while producing value added products such as enzymes (Mussatto and

Teixeira, 2010). However, these methods can be costly, require tech-
nical expertise and infrastructure for operation. Composting and ver-
micomposting offer a simple and low-cost solution for detoxifying by-
products that maximize their utilization. A study comparing bioaug-
mented and control mixtures of SCG showed that compost inoculated
with a fungal strain (Tinea versicolor) displayed a reduction in volatiles,
along with an increase in C and N (Hachicha et al., 2012). Similarly,
Brand et al. (2000) showed that a strain of Aspergillus sp. had high ef-
ficiency in caffeine degradation in culture, demonstrating the high
potential of microbes in the detoxification process.
There is an urgent need for applications that obtain maximum uti-
Fig. 2. Stages of coffee cherry development from immature fleshy green (left) to dried
lization of coffee by-products, and given the chemical composition of
mature (right) fruits (a) and diagrammatic representation of dried mature fruits showing
these by-products, this is highly feasible. The aims of this literature compositional percent (b). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
review are to 1) characterise the waste obtained from the coffee in- legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).
dustry; 2) outline the current value adding applications and chemical
composition of each component; 3) highlight limitations that prevent
2.2. Coffee silver skin (CSS)
full utilization of coffee by-products and 4) determine the feasibility of
by-product utilization and ameliorating their negative environmental
The second by-product, coffee silver skin, is produced during the
impacts.
roasting process. The CSS is the integument of the coffee bean, and
although it accounts for only a small fraction of the total coffee berry
(1–2%), it is high in total dietary fibre, antioxidant activity and phe-
2. Coffee by-products
nolic compounds (Murthy and Naidu, 2012a). Borrelli et al. (2004) used
the gravimetric enzymatic method to determine total dietary fibre
Coffee cherries are the fruit from coffee plants or shrubs, which
(TDF) of 62.4 per 100 g of product, with cellulose and hemicellulose the
belong to the family Rubiaceae. There are two commercially explored
main constituents (Mussatto et al., 2011b). The composition of CSS
species of coffee plants, including Coffea arabica (Arabica) and Coffea
indicates dietary fibre and antioxidant adjuncts for food industries as
canephora (Robusta), which account for 75% and 25% respectively, of
potential value adding applications.
the world’s coffee production (Mussatto et al., 2011b). The coffee
process begins with removal of the external components of the coffee
cherry, either through dry or wet methods, leaving only green coffee 2.3. Spent coffee grounds (SCG)
beans. The dry method is commonly used for Robusta and produces a
husk, while the wet method is mainly used for Arabica and produces The coffee bean accounts for approximately 50% of the coffee
pulp as a by-product. The external components include the skin, pulp/ cherry dry weight and produces spent coffee grounds as the final by-
husk and silver skin (Fig. 2), with silver skin being the main by-product product of the coffee industry. SCG are generated during the production
of the roasting process. of solubilized instant coffee, whereby roasted, ground coffee beans are
heat or steam treated to produce a coffee extract for consumption. The
residue remaining after extracting is referred to as SCG. Annually, an
2.1. Coffee pulp and husk (CP and CH) estimated six million tonnes of SCG is produced worldwide (Mussatto
et al., 2011a), with one tonne of green coffee producing 650 kg of SCG
Depending on the processing method, either wet or dry, coffee pulp (Murthy and Naidu, 2012b). As urban SCG is often separated at the
and husk are the first by-products of the industrial process, and account point of drink preparation from other wastes, it is feasible to prevent
for 29% and 12% of the overall coffee cherry (dry weight). The amount this from reaching landfill by developing coffee waste removal infra-
of coffee pulp and husk produced for a single tonne of fresh coffee is 0.5 structure.
and 0.18 t respectively (Roussos et al., 1995). Pulp and husk are rich in
carbohydrates, mineral and proteins, however they also contain organic 3. Chemical composition and compounds of ecotoxicological
compounds such as tannins, chlorogenic acid and caffeine (Table 1) concern
(Fan et al., 2003).
The chemical composition of coffee by-products changes sub-
stantially through dry and wet processing, roasting and brewing, with

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Table 1
Chemical composition of raw and processed coffee by-products.

Composition (wt%)

Component Raw fruits Processed fruit

Pulp Husk Silver Skin Spent Coffee Grounds

Carbohydrates 44.0–50.0 57.8 44 82

Cellulose 63 43 17.9 8.6
Hemicellulose 2.3 7 13.1 36.7
Moisture 81.4 12 59.0–10.3 11.69
Lipids 2.5 1.5–2.0 2.2 6
Total fibre 18.0–21.0 31.9 62.4 60.5
Ash 8.9 6 4.7–7.0 1.6
Protein 10.0–12.0 9.2 16.2–18.6 13.6
Nitrogen 3.2 1.8 3 2.3
Caffeine 1.25–1.3 1.2 1.4 0.4
Tannins 1.8–8.6 4.5–9.3 0.02 0.02
Chlorogenic acid 10.7 12.59 15.82 11.45
References Murthy and Naidu (2012b); Brand et al. (2000); Murthy and Borrelli et al. (2004); Murthy and Ballesteros et al. (2014); Hachicha et al. (2012);
Orozco et al. (1996); Pandey Naidu, (2012b); Pandey et al. Naidu, (2012b); Mussatto et al. Kang et al. (2017); Murthy and Naidu, (2012b);
et al. (2000); Ulloa Rojas et al. (2000); Shemekite et al. (2014) (2011b); Regazzoni et al. (2016) Mussatto et al. (2011a); Mussatto et al. (2011b);
(2003) Regazzoni et al. (2016)

major changes visible in fibre content, carbohydrates and caffeine Vibrio fischeri, lower for Daphnia similis at EC50 1.5% (v/v) and less for
(Table 1). The composition of CP and CH vary little in their con- Ceriodaphnia dubia with an EC50 of 0.12%. The reduced EC50 values
stituents, with only small changes in composition percentages. Of par- visible between the bacteria and water fleas may be a result of in-
ticular interest for these two by-products is the tannin content, which creased exposure due to ingestion.
has been reported in much higher amounts than CSS and SCG (Pandey Although many studies have investigated caffeine concentrations in
et al., 2000). Research on tannin content is still widely debated, with water ways (Moore et al., 2008), toxicity data is rather limited to lab
many reporting inconsistent quantities for CH ranging from 4.5 to simulations. There are ample studies on caffeine toxicity, but to our
9.3 g/100 g (Pandey et al. (2000) and Brand et al. (2000) respectively). knowledge, no in situ toxicity testing has been performed on leachate
Variations in tannin content was due to the processing method used, from coffee producers. Furthermore, there are several points at which
with sun drying favouring superior tannin production (Brand et al., coffee can enter the environment such as processing/roasting or the
2000). SCG contains the highest carbohydrate content at 82 g/100 g of retail consumption (spent coffee). This suggests there is a major gap in
dry material (Mussatto et al., 2011b) with the main constituents as toxicity data for coffee industry waste products that requires urgent
hemicellulose (36.7 g/100 g) and mannose (21.2 g/100 g). The high attention.
carbohydrate content and high calorific power of SCG (5000 kcal/kg)
suggests biofuel production as a potential value-adding process (Silva
et al., 1998). However, the combustion of coffee waste results in high 3.2. Caffeine
NOx and CO2 emissions (Kang et al., 2017), which is known to affect
global climates (Wild et al., 2001). Interestingly, all other by-products Caffeine is the major constituent of coffee that provides the mild
have higher cellulose compared to hemicellulose, which was reversed stimulant effect of coffee beverages, allowing for maintained cognitive
in SCG. function (Toschi et al., 2014) and reduced central fatigue (Kalmar and
Dietary fibre had high quantities in CSS (62.4 g/100 g) and SCG Cafarelli, 2004). Due to caffeine’s similar chemical structure to ade-
(60.5 g/100 g) compared to CP (21 g/100 g) and CH (31.9 g/100 g), nosine, it functions as an adenosine receptor antagonist (Fisone et al.,
demonstrating their potential as fibre sources in the food industry 2004). When caffeine binds to the adenosine receptor it inhibits ade-
(Toschi et al., 2014). The abundance of toxic compounds (tannins, nosine function, which is known to promote sleep (Basheer et al.,
caffeine and polyphenols) appears to decrease through the industrial 2004). The benefits of human consumption of caffeine include lowered
processing of coffee cherries, however these compounds still present a risk of obesity and type two diabetes mellitus (Hino et al., 2007), a
risk to environmental pollution (Leifa et al., 2000) and pose hesitancy reduction in Parkinson’s symptoms (Trevitt et al., 2009) and delayed
for unregulated usage. onset of age-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease (Carman
et al., 2014).
Caffeine is toxic to aquatic organisms and mammalians and results
3.1. Compounds of ecotoxicological concern in abnormal juvenile growth and reduced fecundity, which is a major
environmental concern for higher trophic levels. At the juvenile stages,
Many studies promote the beneficial properties of coffee beverages zebra fish (Danio rerio) have a developmental 10 h EC50 of 10 mM
including antibacterial (Meckelburg et al., 2014), antioxidant (Murthy where permanent morphological abnormalities were observed
and Naidu, 2012a), anti-inflammatory and anti-obesity (Jia et al., (Rodriguez et al., 2014). Erratic movement and reduced touch sensi-
2014). However, the leaching of compounds such as caffeine, chloro- tivity was also observed; interestingly effects were reversible if caffeine
genic acid and tannins (Table 2) into the environment from coffee waste exposure was stopped before three hours. Similarly, chick embryos
can have severe ecotoxicological effects (Fernandes et al., 2017). Al- exposed to caffeine demonstrated teratogenicity effects on neurodeve-
though there are many benefits of caffeine consumption to human lopment with shortened neuron growth and disrupted proliferation (Ma
health, studies indicate that environmental leaching of caffeine has et al., 2012). Caffeine also has negative effects on plant (Mohanpuria
detrimental effects on other organisms. The toxicity of whole coffee and Yadav, 2009), fungal (Miyashira et al., 2012) and bacterial growth
leachate was variable and dependent on the test organism and its (Sledz et al., 2015).
sensitivity to coffee compounds. Standardised toxicity tests on aquatic
organisms found that the EC50 of coffee leachate was 6.02% v/v on

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Table 2
Ecotoxicological data on chemical compounds of coffee waste and its toxicity on test organisms.

Compound Test Organism1 Endpoint2 Concentration Reference

Caffeine Artemia salinab LC50 17800 μmol/L Calleja et al. (1994)

Brachionus calyciflorusb EC50, Population growth inhibition 104 mg/L Zarrelli et al. (2014)
Brachionus calyciflorusb LC50 24000 μmol/L Calleja et al. (1994)
Brachionus calyciflorusb LC50 1018 mg/L Zarrelli et al. (2014)
Ceriodaphnia dubiab EC50, Reproduction 44 mg/L Moore et al. (2008)
Ceriodaphnia dubiab LC50 60 mg/L Moore et al. (2008)
Chironomus dilutusa LC50 1230 mg/L Moore et al. (2008)
Danio reriob EC50, Development 10 mM Rodriguez et al. (2014)
Daphnia magnab EC50, Mobility 822 μmol/L Calleja et al. (1994)
Mus musculusa LC50 (Oral) 127 mg/kg Lee and Wang (2015)
Photobacterium phosphoreumb EC50, Luminescence inhibition 3460 μmol/L Calleja et al. (1994)
Pimephales promelasb IC50, Growth 71 mg/L Moore et al. (2008)
Pimephales promelasb LC50 100 mg/L Moore et al. (2008)
Streptocephalus proboscideusb LC50 2110 μmol/L Calleja et al. (1994)

Chlorogenic Acid Arabidopsis thalianaa IC50, Root growth 96.3 μM Reigosa and Pazos-Malvido (2007)
Artemisia herba albaa EC50, Shoot growth 0.15 mM Al-Charchafchi and Al-Quadan (2010)
Artemisia herba albaa EC50, Root growth 0.1 mM Al-Charchafchi and Al-Quadan (2010)
Artemisia herba albaa EC50, Germination 0.5 mM Al-Charchafchi and Al-Quadan (2010)
Fusarium culmoruma EC50, Growth inhibition > 10 mM Gauthier et al. (2016)
Fusarium graminearuma EC50, Growth inhibition > 10 mM Gauthier et al. (2016)
Hypericum perforatuma EC50, Shoot regeneration 50 mg/L Franklin and Dias (2011)

Tannins Activated sludge EC50, Microbial oxygen uptake rates 381 mg/L Koyunluoglu et al. (2006)
Danio reriob LC50 > 100 mg/L Koyunluoglu et al. (2006)
Leuciscus idusb LC50 1–10 mg/L Koyunluoglu et al. (2006)
Phaeodactylum tricornutumb IC50, Growth rate 26.4 mg/L Libralato et al. (2011)
Phaeodactylum tricornutumb IC50, Growth inhibition < 1% v/v Babuna et al. (2007)
Vibrio fischerib EC50, Luminescence 40% v/v Jochimsen and Jekel (1997)

1 a
terrestrial; baquatic.
2
EC50; concentration at which a 50% decrease from the control is seen, IC50; concentration at which 50% inhibition is seen compared to the control, LC50; concentration at which 50%
mortality is achieved.

3.3. Tannins removal before waste disposal.

Tannins are traditionally associated with the leather tanning in- 3.4. Chlorogenic acid
dustry, and are prevalent in developing countries (De Nicola et al.,
2007). These compounds are most commonly found in the bark of Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a soluble polyphenol formed by the es-
vascular plants, and to a lesser extent leaves, fruit, flowers and seeds terification of caffeic acid with quinic acid (Gauthier et al., 2016),
(Osman, 2012). Tannins are widely accepted as an anti-nutritional which has a plethora of properties beneficial to human health including
compound, which limits their use in animal feed (Pandey et al., 2000). hepatoprotective (Zhou et al., 2016), antioxidant (Sato et al., 2011),
Tannins have properties beneficial to human health including anti- antiplatelet (Fuentes et al., 2014), anticancer (Barahuie et al., 2017)
bacterial (Bors et al., 2000), antimicrobial (Cowan, 1999), anti-in- and neuronal cell death protection (Mikami and Yamazawa, 2015).
flammatory (Santos-Buelga and Scalbert, 2000), anti-allergy (Bagchi However, CGA has reported synergism with plant growth regulators
et al., 2000) along with applications against cardiovascular diseases (PGR) such as auxins and cytokines (Franklin and Dias, 2011), along
(Facinó et al., 1996). However, the beneficial properties of tannins may with many other plant functions. As such, CGA outside of standard
be affected by varying chemical structures and polymerization of tannin concentrations results in phytotoxic effects. This has important en-
polymers to oligomers (Wei et al., 2012) vironmental drawbacks and long-term implications if coffee is used as a
Tannins can be harmful, depending on the sensitivity of the or- fertiliser.
ganism and the concentration of exposure. Tannins affect sea urchin CGA has beneficial roles in many plant functions including cell wall
development (Sphaerechinus granularis and Paracentrotus lividus) and synthesis (Aerts and Baumann, 1994), wound healing (Campos-Vargas
algae (Dunaliella tertiolecta) with increased fertilization success at low and Saltveit, 2002) and root hair formation (Narukawa et al., 2009).
concentrations of 0.3 mg/mL but decreased when above 1.0 mg/L (De However negative effects were observed based on CGA concentration,
Nicola et al., 2007). Growth inhibition was seen in D. tertiolecta after including reduced primary root, root hair length, the total number of
exposure to tannins (0.1–30 mg/L) in a non-linear fashion. A similar root hairs (Narukawa et al., 2009) and root induction (Franklin and
result was found on another algal species, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Dias, 2011) when CGA concentrations exceeded 50 mg/L, suggesting an
with an EC50 of 26.04 mg/L (Libralato et al., 2011). Tannins are also optimal concentration is required for beneficial effects. Negative effects
known for their low biodegradability (Koyunluoglu et al., 2006), thus on germination occurred in Arabidopsis thaliana (Reigosa and Pazos-
remaining in the environment for extended periods and bioaccumulates Malvido, 2007). There is also evidence suggesting that CGA has in-
along the food chain. Due to the health concerns of the tannery industry hibitory effects on fungal growth, most likely due to its role in plant
effluent, many studies are available on its toxicity ranging from aqua- defence (Villarino et al., 2011).
culture to aquatic ecosystems. Similar leaching occurs from the coffee
industry by-products when they are released into the environment,
4. Current value-adding processes
however studies on tannins leached from the coffee industry is limited.
Some industrial effluents have reported tannin concentrations above
Utilization of coffee by-products for value addition is an essential
100 mg/L (Koyunluoglu et al., 2006). This is substantially higher than
consideration for the disposal of coffee waste and the reduction of en-
many reported EC50 values, suggesting an urgent need for tannin
vironmental pollution. Traditional value adding applications were

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Table 3
Coffee by-products, their application and efficacy.

Coffee by-product Application Product efficacy1 Reference

Coffee pulp Amylase 2163 U/g Murthy and Naidu (2011)

Animal feed NR Nurfeta (2010)
Caffeic acid 7.2%b Torres-Mancera et al. (2011)
Cellulase 2141 U/g Murthy and Naidu (2011)
Chlorogenic acid 54.4%b Murthy and Naidu, (2012a)
Compost 15C/N Nogueira et al. (1999)
Ferulic acid 19.8%b Torres-Mancera et al. (2011)
Mushroomsa 138%a Velazquez-Cedeno et al. (2002)
p-coumaric 2.3%b Torres-Mancera et al. (2011)
Pectinase 12,936 U/g Murthy and Naidu (2011)
Polyphenols NR Sera (2010)
Xylanase 1,4765 U/g Murthy and Naidu (2012a,b,c)

Coffee husk Chlorogenic acid 17.5%b Murthy and Naidu, (2012a)

Citric acid 0.15 g/g Shankaranand and Lonsane (1994)
Ethanol 0.085 g/g Gouvea et al. (2009)
Gibberellic acid 0.49 mg/g Machado et al. (2002)
Mushrooms 85.8%a Velazquez-Cedeno et al. (2002)
Tannase 1.3–1.5 U/mL Battestin and Macedo (2007)
Vermicompost NR Sathianarayanan and Khan (2008)
Xylanase 9475 U/g Murthy and Naidu, (2012a)

Silver skin Antioxidants 2.12 mmol/trolox gram dry weight Murthy and Naidu, (2012a)
Chlorogenic acid 25%b Murthy and Naidu, (2012a)
Dietary fibre 0.8 g/g Murthy and Naidu, (2012a)
fructooligosaccharides 0.7 g/g Mussatto and Teixeira (2010)
β-fructofuranosidase 71.3 U/mL Mussatto and Teixeira (2010)

Spent Coffee Grounds Antioxidants 2.04 mmol/trolox gram dry weight Murthy and Naidu, (2012a)
Biodiesel NR Kondamudi et al. (2008)
Cellulase 2.67 U/g Buntić et al. (2016)
Chlorogenic acid 19.3%b Murthy and Naidu, (2012a)
Coffee oil 9.80% Burton et al. (2010)
Compost 14C/N Hachicha et al. (2012)
Dietary fibre 0.61 g/g Ballesteros et al. (2014)
Ethanol 6.12 g/L Asrat et al. (2013)
Mushrooms 88.6%a Murthy and Manonmani (2008)
Vermicompost 7.4C/N Adi and Noor (2009)

1 a b
Bioconversion efficacy; Yield from total content; NR Not reported; C/N Carbon/nitrogen ratio.

inefficient or technically poor and included processes such as animal 2000).

feed, composting and fertilisers. However, our understanding of coffee
waste has developed and as such, we are beginning to optimize these 4.2. Enzymes
applications for specific coffee by-products. The chemical composition
determines the spectrum of applications that are suited to each by- Two methods, solid-state fermentation (SSF) and submerged fer-
product. These have focused on bioprocessing, detoxification and ver- mentation (SmF), dominate industrial enzyme production. The solid
micomposting. Current applications include the production of mush- supports found in SSF can be inert materials such as industrial residues
room, enzymes, organic acids, biofuels, and fertilisers (Table 3). like coffee by-products. SSF is advantageous in the cultivation of fungi
as the residues used can act as a carbon source for the production of
4.1. Mushrooms enzymes (Torres-Mancera et al., 2011). A recent study explored the
feasibility of SCG as a substrate for cellulase production by Paenibacillus
Coffee by-products have been of interest as substrates for mushroom chitinolyticus and achieved 71% yield under optimal conditions using a
cultivation for nearly three decades. The initial by-product of interest batch-adsorption system (Buntić et al., 2016). Similar studies have in-
for the cultivation of Flammulina velutipes was SCG (Song et al., 1993; vestigated feasibility and extraction optimisation on enzymes such as
Thielke, 1989). Later research expanded to the use of other by-pro- tannase (Battestin and Macedo, 2007), xylanase (Murthy and Naidu,
ducts, such as coffee husk and pulp, which is also rich in organic con- 2012a), pectinase (Ngo and Phan, 2016), and β-fructofuranosidase
tent (Leifa et al., 2001), with some studies reporting biological efficacy (Mussatto and Teixeira, 2010).
between 125 and 138% (Velazquez-Cedeno et al., 2002). A study by
Murthy and Manonmani (2008) found that a mixture of SCG, coffee 4.3. Biofuels
cherry waste and coffee leaves had a bioconversion efficacy of 152%.
Furthermore, the protein content of CH and SCG increased after the Coffee by-products have excellent potential for ethanol production.
cultivation F. velutipes, as did the fibre content of CH (Leifa et al., 2001). Machado (2009) treated SCG with acid hydrolysis and fermented the
Caffeine and tannin content is also reduced without any evidence of hydrolysate with Saccharomyces cerevisiae and achieved a 50% yield.
their presence in the fruiting body of the fungi, suggesting it is degraded Gouvea et al. (2009) performed a similar experiment on CH but with a
in the cultivation process. Detoxification of coffee husk has important yield of only 8.5% (dry basis), possibly due the higher concentrations of
implications as these compounds limit its application in livestock feed caffeine and tannins. The potential of CP was further improved using an
and bioprocesses. Approximately 73% of the substrate will be utilised acid hydrolysis method, followed by fermentation with Pichia anomala
during mushroom cultivation, the remaining substrate can be further achieved 78% yields of ethanol (Woldesenbet et al., 2016).
used as compost to produce a fertiliser for soils (Martínez-Carrera et al., The concentration of ethanol produced from CP (6.12 g/L) was

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more successful than poultry manure (5 g/L), but not as efficient as 4.7. Composting and vermicomposting
banana peels (9.8 g/L) or sugarcane (10.2 g/L). These high yields sug-
gest coffee by-products are viable substrates for ethanol production. Composting and vermicomposting provide a low-cost solution to
Similar studies on the feasibility of coffee waste for biodiesel and biogas agro-industrial waste, which create nutrient-rich fertilisers for in-
production have yielded promising results. Oil has been extracted from creased plant productivity. Currently, CP is considered the most time
SCG and converted to biodiesel with a 10–15% yield, where 100% of efficient using conventional turning methods and will compost in three
this oil was converted to biodiesel (Kondamudi et al., 2008). More re- weeks (Murthy and Naidu, 2012b). Other materials, such as SCG have
cent studies have returned similar findings of biodiesel yields up to 16% decomposition times of ninety days or more possibly as a result of the
using SCG and suggested an estimated 700,000 t of biodiesel could be roasting process. Adi and Noor (2009) vermicomposted SCG following a
produced from the 5,817,500 t of SCG waste annually (Park et al., twenty one day pre-treatment of composting. In all treatments amended
2016). with SCG, there was an increase in nutrient elements such as nitrogen
and potassium, demonstrating their potential as a high-quality ferti-
4.4. Organic acids liser.
Microorganism inoculation is a novel approach to increase the speed
Organic acids such as citric and gibberellic acid (plant hormone) and quality of SCG composting. Hachicha et al. (2012) inoculated the
have been produced using coffee by-products as a substrate. compost with the white-rot fungus, Trametes versicolor, resulting in a
Shankaranand and Lonsane (1994) used SSF with Aspergillus niger to mature final compost with reduced phenolic compounds that produced
produce an 82% yield of 1.5 g citric acid/10 g dry CH. SSF was also a germination index of 120% for barley in less than 20 weeks. The
used in the production of gibberellic acid from Gibberella fujikuroi. germination index was obtained using Eq. (1) (Hachicha et al., 2012).
Machado et al. (2002) determined that a mixture of CH and cassava %GI·%L
%GI =
bagasse obtained optimal results with 492.5 mg/kg of dry CH. Few 100 (1)
studies are available for comparison of results, possibly due to their
Where %G: germination in treated relative to control compost; %L:
limited applications.
root length in treated relative to control compost. Jiménez and Garcia
(1989) suggested a germination index of greater than 80% for a mature
4.5. Bioactive compounds compost, free of phytotoxic chemicals. Composting and vermi-
composting appear to have great potential in converting whole by-
There are many human health benefits associated with bioactive products into value added materials in the form of a nutrient-rich fer-
compounds, such as the phenolics previously described (chlorogenic tiliser. If a waste infrastructure at an industrial level was designed
acid and caffeine) including antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, hepatopro- specifically for commercial coffee waste (SCG) collection, it could
tective, antioxidant and cognitive improvement. These compounds produce a lucrative product from a low cost substrate, while reducing
occur in small quantities in foods and plant material, however agro- the negative environmental impacts of the coffee industry.
industrial by-products such as coffee waste are an excellent source of
phenolics. Typically, bioactive compounds are obtained using solid-li- 5. Overview and future directions
quid extraction. Martins et al. (2011) also described the potential of SSF
for bioactive recovery, which provided high quality bioactive extracts The chemical composition of coffee by-products varies only slightly,
while avoiding any toxicity associated with organic solvents used in however these small differences can have great limitations to their
other methods. A recent study by Al-Dhabi et al. (2017) assessed for the value adding applications. The high phenolic content of CH and CP
first time the feasibility of phenolic extraction from SCG using ultra- make them the most effective for phenolic extraction, while it limits
sound-assisted solid-liquid extraction (USLE). Using optimal conditions, their use as substrates for bioprocesses and compost/vermicompost.
they were able to obtain a total phenolics yield of 3.6%. This is nearly a The high fibre content of SCG and CSS has great potential for dietary
six-fold increase in extraction compared to a SSF extraction performed fibre supplements. More over, the antioxidant activity of these fibres
by Machado et al. (2012), who obtained 7 mg of phenolic compounds could be utilized as antioxidant adjuncts for food processing. Their
per gram of SCG using Penicillium purpurogenum. The removal of these reduction in phenolics, compared to CH and CP, make them a more
phenolics from SCG, which are of ecotoxicological concern, opens new suitable substrate for bioprocesses such as enzyme production.
possibilities for their use as fertilisers. Due to the organic nature of However, there appears to be a major gap in waste utilization at the
phenolic extraction substrates, this is an industrial and economically commercial end of the coffee industries. There is strong evidence to
feasible solution as a single collection method could turn waste into a suggest SCG and CSS has great potential as a horticultural fertiliser.
viable product. However, the composting process could be time con- Furthermore, SCG and CSS accounts for over 50% of the total waste
suming and require adequate space, thus warranting further research. produced by the coffee industry, thus is a large supply. Given that 100%
of this waste could be converted to a nutrient rich fertiliser, it is con-
4.6. Dietary fibre cerning that there is currently no infrastructure in place to deal with
this large supply. By-product utilization requires urgent attention if we
Dietary fibre (DF) promotes gastrointestinal health, reduces the risk are to ameliorate the ecotoxicological and environmental impacts of
of cardiovascular disease and obesity, with the recommended fraction coffee waste.
ratio of 1:2 soluble/insoluble dietary fibre (Figuerola et al., 2005). DF
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