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Spatial Data Quality
 Spatial Data Quality
Edited by

Wenzhong Shi
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Peter F.Fisher
University of Leicester

Michael F.Goodchild
University of California

London and New York

 First published 2002 by Taylor & Francis
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Taylor & Francis Inc.
29 West 35th Street, New York NY10001

Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of
thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk”.
© 2002 Taylor & Francis
Publisher’s Note
This book has been produced from camera-ready copy provided by the editors
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Every effort has been made to ensure that the advice and information in this
book is true and accurate at the time of going to press. However, neither the
publisher nor the authors can accept any legal responsibility or liability for
any errors or omissions that may be made. In the case of drug
administration, any medical procedure or the use of technical equipment
mentioned in this book, you are strongly advised to consult the
manufacturer’s guidelines.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalogue record has been requested

ISBN 0-203-30324-5 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-34606-8 (Adobe e-Reader Format)

ISBN 0-415-25835-9 (Print Edition)
 Contents

Contributors vii
Preface xvi
Acknowledgements xx

1
Introduction to Part I: Theoretical Models for Uncertain GIS
Michael F.Goodchild
1 Measurement-based GIS 5
Michael F.Goodchild
2 GIS and Geostatistics for Environmental Modelling 18
Peter A.Burrough
3 Hierarchical Topological Reasoning with Vague Regions 35
Stephan Winter and Thomas Bittner
4 Topological Relationships between Spatial Objects with Uncertainty 51
Wenzhong Shi and Wei Guo
5 Error-aware GIS Development 64
Matt Duckham and John E.McCreadie
6 A Theory for Communicating Uncertainty in Spatial Databases 78
Karin Reinke and Gary J.Hunter
104
Introduction to Part II: Methods for Handling Spatial Data Quality
Wenzhong Shi
7 Statistical Quality Control of Geodata 108
Wilhelm Caspary and Gerhard Joos
8 Data Quality: A Model for Resolvable Objects 119
Thomas K.Windholz, Kate M.Beard and Michael F.Goodchild
9 A Practical Study on Precision and Resolution in Vector Geographical 130
Databases
François Vauglin
10 Visualisation of Uncertainty in Geographical Data 144
Igor Drecki
11 Uncertainty in Polygon Filling Using Particle System Model 164
Tinghua Ai and Zhongliang Cai
12 A Policy-Maker Point of View on Uncertainties in Spatial Decisions 173
Bernard Cornélis and Sébastien Brunet
13 The Registration of Quality in a GIS 199
 Henri J.G.L.Aalders

212
Introduction to Part III: Applications Studies Concerning Data Quality
Peter F.Fisher
14 Quality Management, Data Quality and Users, Metadata for Geographical 214
Information
Laure Dassonville, François Vauglin, Antti Jakobsson and Claude Luzet
15 Data Quality and Quality Management—Examples of Quality Evaluation 228
Procedures and Quality Management in European National Mapping Agencies
Antti Jakobsson
16 A GIS with the Capacity for Managing Data Quality Information 243
Jibo Qiu and Gary J.Hunter
17 Error Metadata Management System 264
Ernesto Gan and Wenzhong Shi
18 Maintaining Spatial Relativity of Utilities after DCDB Upgrade 281
Roger Merritt and Ewan Masters
19 Spatial-thematic Accuracy and Domestic Burglary in the Safer Cities 290
Programme in England
Ho Chung Law and Peter F.Fisher
20 Monte Carlo Simulation of Long-term Spatial Error Propagation in Forestry 309
Databases
Michael Weir

Epilog: A Prospective on Spatial Data Quality 320

Index 328
 Contributors

The editors
Wenzhong Shi
Director, Advanced Research Centre for Spatial Information Technology, and Associate
Professor, Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University. Research interests include GIS, spatial data quality, three
dimensional and dynamic data modelling in GIS, design and development of GIS,
integration of GIS and remote sensing, and feature extraction from remotely sensed
images.

Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hung Hom, Kowloon
Hong Kong
E-mail [email protected]

Peter F.Fisher
Professor of Geographical Information. Research interests include GIS in general,
visualization and uncertainty in particular.

Department of Geography
University of Leicester
Leicester
LE1 7RH
United Kingdom
E-mail [email protected]

Michael F.Goodchild
Chair of the Executive Committee of the National Center for Geographic Information and
Analysis (NCGIA) and Professor of Geography at the University of California, Santa
Barbara. Research interests include GIS, environmental modelling, geographical data
modelling, spatial analysis, location theory, accuracy of spatial databases and statistical
geometry.

Department of Geography
University of California
Santa Barbara
C A 93106–4060
USA
E-mail [email protected]

The contributors
Henri J.G.L.Aalders
Professor in Topography. Research interests include GIS, GIS standardization, GIS
quality, spatial access techniques, GIS application fields in large scale topography and
cadastres.

Department of Geodesy, GIS Technology

Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geo Sciences
TU Delft
P.O.B. 5030
NL-5030 GA
The Netherlands Delft
E-mail [email protected]

Tinghua Ai
Associate Professor of the School of Resource & Environment Science, Wuhan
University, Wuhan, China. Research interests include GIS, cartography, map
generalization, spatial data modeling, spatial analysis, quality of spatial data.

School of Resource & Environment Science

Wuhan University
129 Luoyu Rd
Wuhan
430079
P.R. China
E-mail [email protected]

Kate Beard
Professor and Chair, Department of Spatial Information Science and Engineering.
Research interests include uncertainty in spatial databases, metadata and digital
libraries.

University of Maine
348 Boardman Hall
Orono
Maine
04469–0110
USA
E-mail [email protected]

Thomas Bittner
Research interests include qualitative spatial reasoning, ontology, vagueness, granularity
and uncertainty.
 1890 Maple Ave. #300
Evanston
IL
60201
USA
E-mail [email protected]

Sébastien Brunet
Fellow researcher in the Scientific and Public Involvement in Risk Allocation Laboratory
(SPIRAL)—University of Liège. Research interests include public decision-making,
deliberative democracy, governance and risk.

University of Liège
B.31
bte 29
Sart Tilman
Belgium
E-mail [email protected]

Peter A.Burrough
Director of the Utrecht Centre for Environment and Landscape Dynamics (UCEL) and
Professor of Physical Geography at Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Research
interests include GIS and environmental modelling, including geostatistics,
applications of fuzzy logic and the development of dynamic modelling languages for
environmental modelling; land degradation and erosion, soil and water quality.

Faculty of Geographical Science

Utrecht University
Post box 80 115
3508 TC Utrecht
The Netherlands
E-mail [email protected]

Zhongliang Cai
Research Assistant of the School of Resource & Environment Science, Wuhan
University. Research interests include GIS, cartography, map generalization, spatial
data modeling, multimedia electronic atlas and quality of spatial data.

School of Resource & Environment Science

Wuhan University
129 Luoyu Rd.
Wuhan
430079
P.R.China
E-mail [email protected]

Wilhelm Caspary
Professor of Geodetic Engineering at the University of the Bundeswehr Munich.
Research interests include GIS-data acquisition, data quality, location based mobile
services and Geodesy-reference systems, positioning, mobile mapping, spatial
statistics, data analysis.

Institute of Geodesy
University of the Bundeswehr Munich
D-85577 Neubiberg
Germany
E-mail [email protected]

Bernard Cornélis
Lecturer in Geomatics at the Université de Liège. Research interests include GIS, spatial
decision-making, climatology, environmental modelling and vulgarization of scientific
concepts.

Département de Géographie
Université de Liège
Rue Richard Orban 35
B-4257 Berloz
Belgique/Belgium
E-mail [email protected]

Laure Dassonville
Manager of the cartographic business department. Ex-chair of the CERCO working group
on quality. Research interests include GIS and quality.

COGIT Laboratory
Institut Géographique National
2 avenue Pasteur
94160 Saint-Mandé
France
E-mail [email protected]

Igor Drecki
Cartographer and Researcher. Research interests include geo-visualization, uncertainty
communication, spatial analysis, cartographic design and education.

Environment B·O·P
Quay Street
Whakatane
New Zealand
E-mail [email protected]

Matt Duckham
Doctor. Research interests include GIS and object-orientation, uncertainty in spatial
information, qualitative spatial reasoning, social context of GIS.

Department of Computer Science

University of Keele
Keele
Staffordshire
ST7 8AA
UK
E-mail [email protected]

Ernesto Gan
Technical Officer in Lands Department Survey and Mapping Office of The Government
of the HKSAR. Research interests include GIS, accuracy of spatial databases,
metadata, cartography, system development, marketing strategy, internet marketing, e-
commerce and marketing communications with GIS.

Rm 2331
23/F
North Point Government Offices
North Point
Hong Kong
E-mail [email protected]

Guo Wei
Associate Professor of Fiberhome Telecommunication Technologies Limited. Research
interests include GIS, spatial data modelling, telecommunication network management
and spatial databases.

Software R & D Section

No. 88 Youkeyuan Road
Hongshan District
Wuhan
P.R.China
E-mail [email protected]

Gary J.Hunter
Associate Professor and Reader. Deputy-Head of Department. Research interests include
GIS, managing spatial data quality and applying risk management techniques to
understanding uncertainty in spatial decision making.

Department of Geomatics
University of Melbourne
Victoria 3010
Australia
E-mail [email protected]

Antti Jakobsson
Chief Engineer in the National Land Survey of Finland, a post-graduate student in
Helsinki University of Technology. Research interests include data quality, quality
management and topographic data management.

National Land Survey of Finland

P.O.BOX 84
FIN-00521 Helsinki
Finland
E-mail [email protected]

Gerhard Joos
Senior scientist at the GIS laboratory (AGIS) of the University of the Bundeswehr.
Research interests include GIS, location-based services, interoperability, quality,
standardization and geodata fusion.

AGIS
Universität der Bundeswehr München
D-85577 Neubiberg
Germany
E-mail [email protected]

Ho Chung Law
Doctor. Research interests include geographic information science and operational
research.

Research Development & Statistics Directorate

Home Office
50 Queen Anne’s Gate
London
SW1H 9AT
UK
E-mail [email protected]

Claude Luzet
EuroGeographics Executive Director. Member of the Steering Committee of GSDI
(Global Spatial Data Infrastructure) and of ISCGM (International Steering Committee
for Global Mapping). Research interests include quality of spatial reference data and
data quality management. With particular focus on issues raised by cross-sector, cross-
border, cross-culture, cross-language interoperability and harmonization.
 6–8 avenue Blaise Pascal
77455 Marne-la-Vallée CEDEX 2
France
E-mail [email protected]

Ewan Masters
Senior Lecturer, School of Geomatic Engineering, The University of New South Wales.
Research interests include spatial information, accuracy of spatial databases, data
quality management and global positioning system.

School of Geomatic Engineering

The University of New South Wales
Sydney
NSW 2052
Australia
E-mail [email protected]

John E.McCreadie
Sales & Marketing Director. Research interests include various general areas within the
field of geo-spatial engineering

SDS
3 Hope Street
Bo’ness
West Lothian
EH51 0AA
Scotland
E-mail [email protected]

Roger Merritt
Research interests include upgrading of Cadastre/parcel maps using survey accurate
measurements, parametric least squares adjustments, and measurement databases.
Upgrading of layers which are spatially dependent on the Cadastre, such as utilities and
annotation layers.

2 Cherana Pl
Kareela
Sydney
New South Wales
Australia, 2232
E-mail [email protected]

Jibo Qiu
PhD student. Research interests include GIS, modelling and updating spatial data quality
information.

Department of Geomatics
University of Melbourne
Victoria 3010
Australia
E-mail [email protected]

Karin Reinke
PhD student. Research interests include GIS and communicating spatial data quality.

Department of Geomatics
University of Melbourne
Victoria 3010
Australia
E-mail [email protected]

François Vauglin
Research interests include spatial data quality, spatial accuracy, resolution, multiple
representations, data fusion and multiscale.

COGIT Laboratory
Institut Géographique National
2 avenue Pasteur
94160 Saint-Mandé
France
E-mail [email protected]

Michael J.C.Weir
Lecturer and Programme Director of Natural Resources Management, International
Institute for Aerospace Survey & Earth Sciences (ITC). Research interests include
spatial data acquisition for natural resource management, GIS data quality and remote
sensing.

International Institute for Aerospace Survey & Earth Sciences (ITC)

P.O. Box 6
7500 AA Enschede
The Netherlands
E-mail [email protected]

Stephan Winter
Assistant Professor. Research interests include GI science, topology, computational
geometry, uncertainty, GI services and navigation.

Institute for Geoinformation

Technical University Vienna
Gusshausstrasse 27–29
1040 Vienna
Austria
E-mail [email protected]

Thomas K.Windholz
Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Maine. Research interests include GIS,
uncertainty modelling and spatial analysis.

Department of Spatial Information Science and Engineering

University of Maine
Orono
ME 04469
USA
E-mail [email protected]
 Preface

Quality is an issue for any kind of information. One wants to know that bus timetables
are accurate, that aircraft positions are accurately measured by radar, that weather maps
reflect accurate measurement and prediction of temperature, that people’s names are
spelled correctly in telephone directories, and so on. Information is increasingly the basis
of modern society, of its economic well-being, and of the institutions that govern our
actions. In all of these respects the quality of information is a major determinant of
efficiency and efficacy. If modern society cannot depend on information to be accurate,
then many of its activities quickly become impossible. Unfortunately even the highest
quality information may still have deficiencies. Some information may never be
completely accurate. In this case people do not require any assurance that the information
is accurate, but they need to be able to assess the consequences of the inaccuracy and
uncertainty for their use of the information.
This book is about the quality of a particular type of information. The term spatial is
used in the title as synonymous with geographical (and also with the modern coinage
geospatial), and in the sense of this book spatial data consist of information about the
surface and near-surface of the Earth. Such information is used today for many purposes,
including the management of natural resources, war-fighting, navigation, the maintenance
of utility networks, agriculture, the monitoring of disease outbreaks, and a host of other
everyday activities. In all of these cases it is obvious that data must be of high quality, but
it is not at all clear why the fact that the data are spatial prompts any kind of special
concern. Yet over the past two decades a large research literature has emerged on the
subject of spatial data quality. Why, then, are spatial data subject to particular problems
regarding quality?
First, spatial data must of necessity be approximate, since it is impossible to capture all
of the infinite complexity of the Earth’s surface in any form, whether as a map, a globe, a
digital database, or a narrative. This issue is not unique to spatial data, of course, but its
validity is especially obvious when one considers the role of scale in spatial data. Scale is
defined for a map as the ratio of distance on the map to distance on the ground, and it
determines the level of detail captured by the map. Its equivalent for a digital database is
termed spatial resolution, and relates directly to the size of the smallest features recorded
in the database. Thus a highly detailed map is clearly a better approximation to the
Earth’s surface than a less detailed one, and scale and spatial resolution are important
components of quality. For example, an airline reservation system can and does maintain
records of every reservation, and in principle can be of perfect quality; but a spatial
database cannot record every feature on the Earth’s surface.
Second, the creation of a map or a spatial database is a long and complex process,
involving many stages of acquisition, interpretation, analysis, and generalization. Unlike
a simple scientific measurement of a property like temperature, the process by which an
elevation appears on a map may involve many measurements, and some degree of
subjectivity. Inaccurate processes, such as the misregistration of aerial photographs,
produce errors that appear simultaneously in many parts of the map. Other processes,
particularly ones involving human interpretation, may be undocumented and
unreplicable. In short, the lineage of a spatial database is rarely fully known, and
conventional methods of analyzing and modeling error are far too simple to be applicable
to spatial data quality.
Third, many types of spatial data involve human judgment. A soil scientist must use
judgment in creating a map of soils, and a landscape ecologist must similarly use
judgment in drawing boundaries on maps between different classes of vegetation. Two
scientists may not agree on where to place the boundaries, or how to assign the classes,
even though they may be highly respected and experienced. Thus the concept of
accuracy, which implies the existence of a truth that can be approached by better and
more precise measurement, simply does not apply to many types of spatial data. Instead,
truth must sometimes be regarded as a vague concept that is in principle unattainable.
Finally, spatial databases record the locations and attributes of objects on the Earth’s
surface. Many of these objects will be well defined, such that one person can successfully
and precisely locate the object based on another’s description of its characteristics and
location. This would be true, for example, of buildings, survey monuments, streets, and
many other human modifications to the natural landscape. But other features, such as
mountains, coastlines, or valleys, are artifacts of human interpretation. Two people might
well not agree on the precise boundaries of a mountain, or the existence of a particular
swamp, or the number of lakes in a specific state. In such instances, the objects that
appear so precisely and crisply in a spatial database simply do not exist on the ground
with the degree of reliability of a building, or a survey monument.
Many efforts have been made over the past decades to define spatial data quality, and
to identify its core elements. The U.S. Spatial Data Transfer Standard (1994) defines five
components of spatial data quality—positional accuracy, attribute accuracy, lineage,
logical consistency, and currency—and its approach has been adopted in many areas. A
compendium edited by Guptill and Morrison (1995) provides an excellent discussion of
the various components, suggests some extensions, and describes the ways in which each
element can be characterized. Users of the U.S. Federal Geographic Data Committee’s
Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata are expected to describe the quality of
a data set in terms of the five components, and this approach is being mirrored in new
ISO (1998) standards that are under development by Technical Committee 211.
Much effort has also gone into developing reliable methods of accuracy assessment,
especially in areas such as resources management where it is important to know the
accuracy of forest stand maps, maps of vegetation cover, and other information essential
to the management of the forest resource. Several books have appeared on this topic
(Leung, 1988; Goodchild and Gopal, 1989; Hunter, 1991; Burrough and Frank, 1996;
Goodchild and Jeansoulin, 1998; Heuvelink, 1998; Lowell and Jaton, 1999; Mowrer and
Congalton, 2000).
Many other research threads related to data quality are explored in this book. The first
section looks at efforts to advance the theoretical framework for spatial data quality, in
the form of models of quality, links to existing areas such as geostatistics that can provide
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