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 Apropos of Ideology
Translation Studies on Ideology – Ideologies in
Translation Studies

Edited by
María Calzada Pérez
First published 2003 by St. Jerome Publishing

Published 2014 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2003 Taylor & Francis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN 13: 978-1-900650-51-9 (pbk)

Cover design by
Steve Fieldhouse, Oldham, UK

Typeset by
Delta Typesetters, Cairo, Egypt

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Apropos of ideology : translation studies on ideology, ideologies in transla-
tion studies / edited by María Calzada Pérez.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-900650-51-7 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Translating and interpreting. I. Pérez, María Calzada.
PN241 .A66 2002
418'.02--dc21
2002014787
I FORGET YOUR NAME
I DON’T THINK
I BURY MY HEAD
I BURY YOUR HEAD
I BURY YOU
(Jenny Holzer)
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Introduction 1
María Calzada Pérez

Third Ways and New Centres 23

Ideological Unity Or Difference?
Christina Schäffner

‘Events’ and ‘Horizons’ 43

Reading Ideology in the ‘Bindings’ of Translations
Keith Harvey

(Mis)Translating Degree Zero 71

Ideology and Conceptual Art
Mª Carmen África Vidal Claramonte

Function and Loyalty in Bible Translation 89

Christiane Nord

The Translation Bureau Revisited 113

Translation as Symbol
Ôehnaz Tah¥r-GhrHa™lar

Submerged Ideologies in Media Interpreting 131

David Katan and Francesco Straniero-Sergio

The Manipulation of Language 145

and Culture in Film Translation
Peter Fawcett

The Power of Originals and the Scandal of Translation 165

A Reading of Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Oval Portrait”
Rosemary Arrojo

Ideology and the Position of the Translator 181

In What Sense is a Translator ‘In Between’?
Maria Tymoczko
Contributors: A Short Profile 203

References 207

Subject Index 225

Author Index 227

Acknowledgements

Extracts of Jenny Holzer’s Truisms, Inflamatory Essays, The Living Se-

ries, Under a Rock, and Laments displayed at the Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum for the 1989-1990 exhibition, © Jenny Holzer, VEGAP, 2001.
Introduction
MARÍA CALZADA PÉREZ

1. Why Ideology?
It is a truism that translation is as old as humankind. Ideology, for its part,
is hardly a new phenomenon either. Likewise, the combination of cross-
cultural encounters and ideological pressures has permeated history.
Examples abound. Goldenberg (2000), for instance, points out that – in
the Spanish-American War of 1898 – presses played crucial roles in the
construction of public opinion regarding their own countries and ‘the
Other’. Original (ST) and translated (TT) documents contributed to forg-
ing ideological stereotypes. These were intentionally sought to raise
support for a war that was to change the global order and the hegemonic
discourse of the time.
Therefore, the cross-cultural ideological tensions that mark the turn of
the millennium are actually nothing new, despite the growing concern
they are causing. However, they do contain certain features that make
them, in many ways, unusual and unique. Their idiosyncratic nature
mainly stems from what is known as globalization: a widely spread neolo-
gism that could be seen to designate a form of cultural and economic
colonialism.
Whereas, before, tensions were limited by geographical and chrono-
logical factors and mainly affected certain social strata directly, now the
homogenizing force of globalization is all the greater because it can reach
all places and all social levels very fast. To this end, new means of com-
munication (notably the Internet) and media (e.g. satellite and digital
television) are being put to use. It is this overwhelming strength of glo-
balization that worries thinkers like Maalouf (1999:152) when he argues:

I am convinced that globalization is a threat to cultural diversity,

especially to diversity of languages and lifestyles; and that this
threat is even infinitely greater than in the past [...]1

Concern about these globalized ideological tensions is resulting in increas-

ing interest on the part of a variety of disciplines ranging from political

1
All translations into English are my own.
2 Introduction

science and anthropology through sociology and cultural studies to lin-

guistics. Linguistics, for example, has developed a relatively new trend of
research – critical discourse analysis (CDA) – whose primary aim is to
expose the ideological forces that underlie communicative exchanges.
This is the common goal of an approach that is far from homogeneous.
According to Fairclough and Wodak (1997:262-268), there are at least
six main strands within CDA – French discourse analysis (e.g. Pêcheux);
the discoursal-historical method (e.g. Wodak); Van Dijk’s socio-cognitive
school; Fairclough’s emphasis on socio-cultural/discursive change; so-
cial semiotics (e.g. Kress) and critical linguistics (e.g. Fowler). All of them
use slightly different tools and methodologies for their work.
This, of course, does not exhaust the viewpoints from which cross-
cultural ideological phenomena may be – and are indeed being – examined.
Translation studies (TS) have a great deal to say about these issues. In
fact, it has been doing so for over a decade now. TS dig into ideological
phenomena for a variety of reasons. All language use is, as CDA con-
tenders claim, ideological. Translation is an operation carried out on
language use. This undoubtedly means that translation itself is always a
site of ideological encounters (which often turn ‘sour’). Fawcett (1998:
107), for instance, provides an eloquent illustration of how

throughout the centuries, individuals and institutions have ap-

plied their particular beliefs to the production of certain effects
in translation.

Ranging from the Middle Ages to the present day, Fawcett’s chosen cases
show that translations have been ideological simply by existing (like
Ælfric’s transfer of The Life of the Saints); by being subjected to various
forms of (religious) creeds, which ultimately took translators to be burnt
at the stake or to be threatened (and killed) by notorious fatwas; or by
echoing all sorts of value-related messages such as Marxism:

As in all good dialectical practice, the thesis (source language)

and the antithesis (target language) are resolved in the synthesis of
translation. (Fawcett 1998:110)

Furthermore, ideological phenomena may also be legitimately ap-

proached from a TS vantage point because, as Emily Apfer (2001)
argues, globalization is resulting in an in-built form of (Anglo-American)
translatability at which “global artists, video makers and writers con-
María Calzada Pérez 3

sciously or unconsciously” aim. If globalization is unleashing transla-

tional mechanisms even within monolingual artefacts, this seems to hint
at an ever-increasing need for TS expertise. It is not without reason, then,
that Apfer (2001:online) makes a point of stressing TS’s important contri-
bution to ideologically-related matters:

When the problem of a globalizing mass culture and public cul-

ture is approached from the perspective of translatability, new
and important questions of cultural commodification and thus,
ideology, arise.

Hence, both the present interest in today’s cross-cultural ideological phe-

nomena and their undoubted relation to the field of translation studies (of
which we have only presented a handful of arguments here) explain
the reason for a book like Apropos of Ideology. Translation Studies on
Ideology – Ideologies in Translation Studies. The main aim of this com-
pilation of articles is, thus, to encourage a debate on ideology in translation
studies which contributes to the discussion that is currently taking place
at various levels. However, to understand what this aim fully entails I will
now consider the concepts of ‘ideology’ (section 2) and ‘translation stud-
ies’ (section 3). A detailed structure of the volume, with an overview of
the articles it contains, follows (section 4).

2. On Ideology

There are so many definitions of ideology that it is impossible to review

all of them here.2 Such a profusion tends to confuse scholars and lay read-
ers alike. For the latter, “An ideology is a belief or a set of ideas, especially
the political beliefs on which people, parties, or countries base their ac-
tions” (Collins Cobuild s.v.). The common political slant of the term
often merges with negative undertones so that, for Van Dijk (1998:2), it
is sometimes “taken as a system of wrong, false, distorted or otherwise
misguided beliefs”. This is, of course, the legacy of a Marxist (and neo-
Marxist) tradition which saw ideology as tantamount to political
domination, in the form of covert manipulation, and always related to

2
For a brief outlook of the history of the term and copious bibliography on the topic,
see, for instance, Larrain (1979); Thompson (1990); Eagleton (1991); Hawkes (1996);
or Van Dijk (1998).
4 Introduction

the concepts of power and hegemony (in the Gramscian sense). Along
these lines, ideology is imposed surreptitiously. It gradually becomes
everyday, common thinking. The more naturalized it is, the more suc-
cessful it becomes amongst its subjugated citizens. This is precisely why,
according to Van Dijk (1998:2),

few of ‘us’ (in the West or elsewhere) describe our own belief
systems or convictions as ‘ideologies’. On the contrary, Ours is
the Truth, Theirs is the Ideology.

In this sense, ideology is a pernicious, destructive force that should be

opposed, fought, and conquered. However, the political definition of ide-
ology does not need to be tied to these ‘negative’ (destructive) echoes.
Kellner (in Illuminations. The Critical Theory Website) explains that,
within the Marxian tradition itself, more ‘positive’ (constructive) ap-
proaches, have also developed. These are particularly associated with
Lenin, who described Socialist ideology as a force that encourages revo-
lutionary consciousness and fosters progress. Merging the negative/
destructive and positive/constructive connotations Kellner (online: 3) de-
scribes the term as:

‘Janus-faced’, two-sided: it contains errors, mystifications and tech-

niques of manipulation and domination, but it also contains a
utopian residue that can be used for social critique and to advance
progressive politics.

The political definition of ideology has indeed had a direct influence on

today’s academia. Some theorists remain ‘faithful’ to ideology’s most
political undertones because, as Fairclough (1995:16) for instance explains:

My view is that the abuses and contradictions of capitalist society

which gave rise to critical theory have not been diminished, nor
have the characteristics of discursive practices within capitalist
society which gave rise to critical discourse analysis.

Sometimes these scholars underline the negative connotations of the term,

in which case they link ideologies to the dominant social power and sup-
port the following definition (reproduced by Eagleton 1991:30):

Ideas and beliefs which help to legitimate the interest of a ruling

group or class by distortion or dissimulation.
María Calzada Pérez 5

On other occasions, however, they put an emphasis on ideology’s most

positive side. Ideology is now viewed as a vehicle to promote or le-
gitimate interests of a particular social group (rather than a means to
destroy contenders).
The political definitions of ideology have also had a refracted impact
upon other members of the language-related and TS academic commu-
nity. These scholars realize the importance of the concept as a set of ideas,
which organize our lives and help us understand the relationship to our
environment. They contend that certain ideologies become naturalized or
common, whereas others are pushed aside to the edges of our societies.
For them, some ideologies are dominant, they are more useful to succeed
in public spheres while others remain chained to more domestic settings.
However, they refuse to constrain the term to its purely political meaning.
So they open it up to a wider definition. For Verschueren, editor of a
compilation on Language and Ideology:

Ideology is interpreted as any constellation of beliefs or ideas,

bearing on an aspect of social reality, which are experienced as
fundamental or commonsensical and which can be observed to play
a normative role. (1999:Preface)

After reviewing various definitions, Van Dijk (1998:48-9) agrees with

Verschueren:

[...] an ideology is the set of factual and evaluative beliefs – that

is the knowledge and the opinions – of a group [...] In other words,
a bit like the axioms of a formal system, ideologies consist of
those general and abstract social beliefs and opinions (attitudes)
of a group.

Briefly, the definition of ideology I want to put forward and pursue in this
volume is – like Verschueren’s or Van Dijk’s – not limited to political
spheres. Instead, it allows researchers to investigate modes of thinking,
forms of evaluating, and codes of behaviour which govern a community
by virtue of being regarded as the norm.
There is a final issue that often causes confusion amongst scholars;
that is, the distinction between culture and ideology. Whereas the latter,
as we have just argued, consists of “the set of ideas, values and beliefs
that govern a community by virtue of being regarded as the norm”
(Calzada-Pérez 1997:35), culture is commonly taken to be “an integrated
6 Introduction

system of learned behavior patterns that are characteristic of the mem-

bers of any given society” (Khol 1984:17). Both definitions certainly
overlap and the difference between them may be so subtle that academ-
ics such as Fawcett (1998:106) openly ask: “When is something ideology
rather than culture?”.
Just answering this question to the full would probably entail a vol-
ume on its own and it is not our intention to provide any definite answers
to this specific question in this introduction. Suffice it here to say that we
have foregrounded ‘ideology’ rather than ‘culture’ for two main reasons.
Firstly, everyday ‘culture’ is normally related to what is conventionally
known as ‘society’, in its ethnic sense of “the community of people living
in a particular country or region and having shared customs, laws and
organizations” (New OED 1998 s.v.). Our definition of ideology aims at
enlarging this ethnic framework. Ideology, as is understood here, not only
affects ‘societies’. It permeates (identity) groups of the most varied na-
ture, which would not always relate to the conventional meaning of
‘society’. Disparate communities such as the gay scene or TV interpreters
may be the setting of ideological phenomena which would not strictly
qualify as cultural.
And secondly, in the same way that ideology has been traditionally
associated with negative – political – connotations, culture is normally
tied to positive – ‘philanthropic’ – features. Looking into the former seems
to encourage greater ‘critical thinking’. Cultures are often regarded as
traditions, pasts, roots or knowledge; in short, heritages. Being ‘critical’
with our own cultures can be seen by some as ‘risky’ and ‘inappropriate’
as it is ‘politically incorrect’ to criticize other cultures openly. By
foregrounding ‘ideology’ rather than culture we want to encourage (self)-
criticism from various standpoints within translation studies.

3. On Translation Studies

Apropos of Ideology. Translation Studies on Ideology – Ideologies in

Translation Studies has a twofold aim, represented by its two running
titles. On the one hand, it is a compilation on ideology, in the sense we
have already specified in the previous section. On the other, it is a book
clearly conceived within TS. It revolves also, therefore, around ‘Ideolo-
gies in TS’. This section tackles the latter.
Holmes’ (1988) mapping of our discipline has arguably become a stand-
ard amongst TS (theoretical and practical) communities. However, this
María Calzada Pérez 7

does not mean that TS is either unified or homogeneous. On the contrary,

it is a conglomerate of dissimilar approaches or trends to which Snell-
Hornby et al. (1994), for example, has referred as an ‘interdiscipline’.
Each of these approaches or trends favours its own set of ideas and be-
liefs about the translating task and about the world that surrounds it, and
each has its own mechanisms to perpetuate itself amongst (would-be) fol-
lowers. Ultimately, translation scholars become ideological channels that
(re)produce and (re)create translational behaviour to its most minute de-
tail. Translators qua translators build their identities upon the (artificial)
‘certainties’ that they grasp in these different ideological ‘niches’. Robinson
(online) makes critical remarks about the ideological certainties of both
our discipline and practice:

Translators know certain things: how to regulate the degree of ‘fi-

delity’ with the source text, how to tell what degree and type of
fidelity is appropriate in specific use contexts, how to receive and
deliver translations, how to charge them, how to find help with
terminology, how to talk and generally act as a professional, and
so on. Translators are those people who know these things, and
who let their knowledge govern their behavior. And that knowl-
edge is ideological. It is controlled by ideological norms [...]. If
you want to become a translator you must submit to the transla-
tor’s submissive role, submit to being ‘possessed’ by what
ideological norms inform you [...]

In sum, translators translate according to the ideological settings in which

they learn and perform their tasks. These settings are varied and have
resulted in a rich ‘concoction’ of ideologies. Feminists, functionalists,
descriptive and polysystemic scholars, sociolinguistic researchers,
postcolonial exegetes, corpus studies propounders, critical linguistic
theorists, gay and lesbian academics, semioticians, contrastive linguists
embody some of the very many ‘ideologies’ that make up TS. Neverthe-
less, throughout history, the varied range of TS has often been reduced to
series of polar opposites. Studies in our discipline have been presented as
in favour of either literal or free strategies; scholars have been classified
into literary or non-literary traditions; approaches have been segregated
as theoretical or practical; and so on and so forth. TS’s ideological com-
plexity has also been jeopardized by the latest of these academic
simplifications: strands are either located within cultural studies or ‘pure’
linguistics. It is already well known that, in its most extreme version, this
8 Introduction

dichotomy would claim that linguistically-orientated approaches to trans-

lational phenomena are mainly descriptive studies focusing on textual
form and failing to address wider, ideological issues. Cultural studies,
for its part, targets these issues but would have no systematic formal
framework of analysis.
Furthermore, these two sides – as Baker (1996) shows – have been
depicted as isolated contenders that can neither communicate nor work
together; that constantly attack and exclude each other, disregarding the
numerous instances of research in which they do indeed come together.
However, more and more voices are currently being raised to contest
the dichotomy. Amongst them, Maria Tymoczko (1999:140) has always
worked to propound that “seemingly divergent or antithetical transla-
tion traditions can function in complementary and symbiotic ways”. For
example, both in Tymoczko (1999) and (2000) she uses descriptive tools
to uncover explanatory, ideological material via the analysis of textual
and paratextual data.
This compilation of papers on ideology is born out of both centripetal
and centrifugal forces. On the one hand, because of centripetal forces, we
want to claim that TS is much richer than the binomial opposites men-
tioned above would suggest. With Ulrych and Bollettieri Bosinelli
(1999:238), we believe that:

[...] there now exists a variegated and consolidated core of transla-

tion scholars working within a variety of approaches and with a
variety of methodologies but all focusing on the ultimate aim of
furthering their knowledge and understanding of translation as a
phenomenon per se.

On the other hand, centrifugal pressures lead us to argue that all these
different ideological trends need to approach each other in order to foster
dialogue and fusion. The merging of dissimilar issues and approaches
around the notion of ideology is one of the main contributions of this
book. In effect, whereas it focuses on ideological phenomena of various
kinds and from various TS perspectives, it nevertheless, gathers material
that up until now would probably be found in separate volumes. We ad-
mit the inspiration of three previous volumes: Dingwaney and Maier
(1995); Bowker et al. (1998); and Simms (1997).
Dingwaney and Maier’s work is an exciting project owing especially
to its multidisciplinary nature. Amongst its varied range of contributors
are poets and writers, social and community workers, sculptors and lec-
María Calzada Pérez 9

turers in diverse fields: literature, anthropology, law, applied linguistics,

cultural studies and religion. It is precisely this multidisciplinarity which
has served as a model for Apropos of Ideology. As mentioned above, the
work seeks to merge different traditions in order to give a richer, more
dynamic view of ideological matters in translation. At the same time, we
propose to draw on the interdisciplinarity of TS itself, rather than to re-
sort to external disciplines.
In turn, Bowker et al. (1998) is really a book on the various ideologies
within TS and it inspires our theoretical/ideological scope. It approaches
a wide variety of topics (e.g. feminism, bilingualism, nationalism, sub-
titling, machine translation, etc.) from dissimilar ideological viewpoints.
Cultural studies, descriptive translation studies, computer-aided transla-
tion, and interpreting are represented in this compilation. Our contributions,
for their part, seek to maintain TS ideological variety. However, they fo-
cus on ideologically related matters only.
Finally, Simms (1997) is, in many ways, a similar product to the
present compilation. It includes articles on ideology from different TS
traditions. Nevertheless, while it concentrates on linguistic descriptions
of legal, religious, political,… products, it excludes other forms of re-
search, such as – for example – poststructuralist criticism. Apropos of
Ideology sets off with the intention of providing an eclectic, though clearly
not exhaustive, picture of the topic.

4. About this book

Apropos of Ideology follows a specific to general approach regarding the
notion of ideology. It starts off with the definition of this concept as po-
litical thinking, but gradually incorporates other sites of ideological
engagement like gender, sexual identity, religion, secularity, technology
and translation studies self-criticism.
The political focus is provided by Christina Schäffner who, in ‘Third
Ways and New Centres – Ideological Unity or Difference?’, examines
a joint manifesto produced by the British Labour Party and the German
Social Democratic Party in 1999. Schäffner moves from establishing the
political background through analyzing ideological features of text pro-
duction to probing the ideological considerations reflected by the text itself.
As far as the political background is concerned, she briefly introduces
the British and German status quo and then reviews the process of co-
writing (as the result of either parallel work or ‘traditional’ translation).
10 Introduction

When examining text production, the author discusses the extratextual

factors which surround the document under scrutiny and which make
up this ‘peculiar’ form of translational event combining parallel writing
and translation. The agents of this mixed process are not individual con-
ventional translators, but a team of (unknown) writers who, though
politically minded, are not normally connected to translating tasks. Both
the British and German versions were ultimately supervised by the then-
influential Peter Mandelson and Bobo Hombach and were designed to
behave as equifunctional texts, theoretically aiming at comparable ad-
dressees with comparable needs and expectations. In effect, the texts
ended up fulfilling different functions in what were indeed very differ-
ent social (and linguistic) contexts. These contextual dissimilarities are
clearly portrayed by textural features of the manifestos. Straightforward
concepts such as ‘social justice’, ‘state’, ‘community’, ‘partnership’ have
different (semantic) histories in Britain and Germany and this has clear
effects on final translations.
Schäffner’s paper may, consequently, be seen as the classical top-down
approach to ideological phenomena. There are certain elements that make
the text innovative. Firstly, while focusing her definition of ideology on
politics, she broadens the most traditional descriptions of translation, in
order to incorporate cross-cultural practices, such as parallel writing, that
some voices (within TS) would leave outside its scope. Admittedly, this
is not an entirely new stand, since other TS scholars – notably Bassnett
and Lefevere – have supported this theoretical ‘enlargement’ for some
time now. Schäffner shows that linguistic-oriented voices actively con-
tribute to this enlargement. Secondly, like the other contributors to this
volume, Schäffner implicitly argues against the pure and neat categoriza-
tion of TS schools when she borrows, for her study, tools from critical
discourse analysis (the textual/contextual link, for example), descriptive
translation studies (translational events), German functionalism (empha-
sis on TT clients and reception; Nord’s extra- and intra-textual components)
and cognitive and text linguistics (frames, schemata, metaphors,...).
Finally, if linguistically-oriented research on translation has been ac-
cused of being detached from the real world, Schäffner proves this criticism
wrong when she presents a linguistically-oriented article full of names
that were certainly internationally recognized at the time when the mani-
festo was produced (i.e. Mandelson, Hombach, Lafontaine). As Vidal
Claramonte (1998:8) suggests, the author shows that translation studies
‘is in this world’.
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